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SENTENCE 

IMPROVEMENT 

A PRACTICE BOOK IN 
APPLIED GRAMMAR 


BY 

CHARLES MAURICE STEBBINS 



SIBLEY & COMPANY 

CHICAGO 


BOSTON 



Copyright, 1910, 

By CHARLES M. STEBBINS 


< < 


C & A 2 6 i 2 7 8 


PREFACE 


In the preparation of this book, the purpose of the 
writer has been to furnish the pupil with material and 
guidance that would render it necessary for him to 
make a thoughtful, practical application of the prin¬ 
ciples of grammar in oral and written expression. 

Grammar is the subject that has, perhaps, given 
rise to more discussion than any other in the school 
curriculum. There are those who say that the study 
of technical grammar is practically worthless, and 
there are those, among them college authorities, super¬ 
intendents of schools, and leading business men, who 
are demanding a better knowledge of grammar on the 
part of our boys and girls. The writer’s experience 
convinced him long ago that both parties to this dis¬ 
cussion about the value, or need, of grammar are 
right. Technical grammar without ability to make a 
practical application of it, is well nigh valueless; at 
the same time, our boys and girls do need a better 
knowledge of grammar, but of applied grammar. 

Many experiments, conducted in the Boys’ High 
School, of Brooklyn, and in Summer school classes at 
Cornell University, have convinced the writer that 
there is one method by which the desired result can be 


IV 


PREFACE 


attained. That is the method of studying the sen¬ 
tence for the purpose of improvement. 

This study involves not only a knowledge of sen¬ 
tence elements and grammatical structure, but also 
a sense of their comparative values, together with 
practice in criticizing and improving the pupil’s own 
work. 

Grammar treated in this way leads naturally to a 
consideration of the principles of composition work. 
In actual speech and writing the two are so closely 
related as to be inseparable. It follows that the work 
in this book involves many of the simpler rhetorical 
principles. The book, therefore, fills a natural place 
between the early language and grammar work of the 
pupil and his later work in rhetoric and composition 
in the secondary school. 

The book, for the sake of convenience, has been ar¬ 
ranged in two parts. Part I deals with the sentence 
and all the elements that go to make it an effective 
unit of expression. Part II takes up the individual 
parts of speech, presenting all the technical grammar 
that the pupil will need. Abundant exercises are 
given in both parts. 

It is not necessary, or even advisable, that the 
teacher leave Part II until all of Part I has been cov¬ 
ered. If, while studying the subject or complement 
in Part I, more technical knowledge of nouns is de¬ 
sired, the class should take up the chapter on nouns 
in connection with subjects and complements. The 
same plan shall be followed with respect to other ele¬ 
ments of the sentence. 


PREFACE 


v 


Credit is due to Marie H. Frary, teacher of English 
in the Bradford High School, Bradford, Pa., for 
valuable assistance in the preparation of the exercises 
in this book. 


Charles M. Stebbins. 


Brooklyn, April i, 1910. 







































































































































































































































































































































































































TABLE OF CONTENTS 


Introductory Chapter 


PART I 

The Elements of the Sentence 

APTER 

I—The Subject.—T he function of the subject— 
The simple subject—The complete subject— 
The position of the subject—Noun as subject 
—Pronoun as subject—Phrase as subject— 
Clause as subject—Exercises .... 

II—Modifiers of the Subject.—T he function of 
modifiers—Adjective as modifier—Phrase as 
modifier—Clause as modifier-—The appositive 
as modifier—Participle as modifier—Position 
of modifier—Exercises. 

III— The Predicate.—T he function of the predicate 

—The simple predicate—The complete predic¬ 
ate—Agreement of subject and verb—The 
simple verb—Verb phrases—Verbs of incom¬ 
plete predication—Verbs of complete predica¬ 
tion—Exercises. 

IV— Modifiers of the Verb.—T he function of the 

verb modifier—Adverb as a modifier—Preposi- 
toinal phrase as modifier—Infinitive as modi¬ 
fier—Clause as modifier—Position of modifier 

—Exercises . .. 

vii 


PAGE 

I 


5 


18 


35 


46 


TABLE OF CONTENTS 


viii 

CHAPTER PAGE 

V—The Complement.—T he function of the comple¬ 
ment—Subjective complement—Object com¬ 
plement—Objective complement—Noun or pro¬ 
noun as complement—Adjective as complement 
—Phrase as complement—Infinitive as comple¬ 
ment—Clause as complement—Exercises . 60 

VI—Modifiers of the Complement.—T he function 
of modifiers—Modifiers of the noun comple¬ 
ment—Modifiers of the adjective complement 
—Modifiers of the infinitive complement— 
Modifiers of the phrase complement—Exercises 72 

VII—Independent Elements of the Sentence.— 
Appositives—Appositive equivalents—Absolute 
expressions—Interjections—Punctuation of in¬ 
dependent elements—Exercise .... 80 

VIII—The Kinds of Sentences.—T he simple sentence 
—Its uses—The complex sentence—The de¬ 
pendent clause—Proper and improper sub¬ 
ordination—The compound sentence—Coor¬ 
dinate clauses—Proper and improper coor¬ 
dination—Exercises.91 


PART II 

The Parts of Speech 

IX— Nouns and Noun Equivalents. —The func¬ 
tion of nouns—Classes of nouns—Gender of 
nouns—Case of nouns—Adjective as noun— 
Prepositional phrase as noun—Clause as noun 
—Infinitive as noun—Participle as noun— 
Nouns with irregular plurals—Irregular femi¬ 
nine nouns—Exercises.105 


TABLE OF CONTENTS 


IX 


CHAPTER PAGE 

X— Prounouns. —The function of pronouns—Classes 
of pronouns—Pronouns and pronominal ad- 
tectives—Pronoun and antecedent—The de¬ 
clension of pronouns—Number, gender and 
case—Exercises.123 


XI— Adjectives and Adjective Equivalents.— The 
function of adjectives—Kinds of adjectives— 
Adjective equivalent—Noun as adjective— 
Prepositional phrase as adjective—The clause 
as adjective—The participle as adjective— 
Exercises.141 


XII— The Verb. —The functions of verbs—Voice— 
Tense—Simple tense forms—The progressive 
tense form—Intensive form of tenses—Se¬ 
quence of tenses—Mode—Shall and will— 
Irregular verbs—Verbs often misused—Ex¬ 
ercises .150 


XIII— Adverbs and Adverb Equivalents. —The func¬ 
tions of adverbs—Classes of adverbs—Adverb 
equivalents—The noun as adverb—The ad¬ 
jective as adverb—Infinitive as adverb—The 
participle as adverb—Prepositional phrase as 
adverb—The clause as adverb—The adverbial 
conjunction—Exercises.175 


XIV— Prepositions. —The function of prepositions— 
Objects of prepositions—Classes of preposi¬ 
tions—Prepositions in relative clauses—Special 
prepositions—Parsing the preposition—Ex¬ 
ercises .. 


183 





X 


TABLE OF CONTENTS 


CHAPTER PAGE 

XV— The Conjunction. —The functions of conjunc¬ 
tions—Coordinate conjunctions—Subordinate 
conjunctions—Correlative conjunctions—The 
adverb as conjunction—Participial phrase as 
conjunction—The prepositional phrase as con¬ 
junction—Exercises ... 187 

XVI— Punctuation. —The period—The question mark 
—The exclamation point—The comma—The 
semicolon—The colon—The dash—Parenthesis 
mark . . .194 


PART I 


THE ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE 



INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER 


1. The Purpose of Language.—We employ lan¬ 
guage for the purpose of expressing thought. If the 
thought is simple, the expression of it is an easy mat¬ 
ter. Many ideas that we wish to convey to another, 
however, are far from simple, and we find the expres¬ 
sion of them difficult. It is, therefore, necessary that 
we study the sentence carefully, and learn by practice 
how best to say what we wish. 

2. The Two Relationships.—We usually think of 
grammar as the subject that has to do with the rela¬ 
tions of words in the sentence. If we study the sen¬ 
tence carefully, however, we shall find that there are 
two important kinds of relationship in it. One is con¬ 
cerned with the forms and functions of words and 
their agreement in the sentence; the other, with the 
selection and arrangement of words, phrases, and 
clauses in expressing thought. The former is, strictly 
speaking, the grammatical relationship; the second, 
the rhetorical relationship. We study the former that 
we may learn to express thought correctly; the latter, 
that we may express it effectively. 

3. The Connection Between the Two Relation¬ 
ships.—It will be clear to us, if we stop to think about 
it, that these two relationships in the sentence are 


2 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


closely connected. The purpose of the study of either 
is to help us express our thoughts better. If we change 
very much the grammatical structure of the sentence 
we usually modify the rhetorical; and to change the 
effectiveness of a sentence, that is, its rhetorical 
structure, we very often have to change the grammat¬ 
ical structure. Take, for example, the sentence, The 
old man laid his hands on the two bowed heads and 
bestowed a solemn blessing. This might be made more 
effective in certain respects by changing the grammat¬ 
ical structure, thus: Laying his hands an the two 
bowed heads , the old man bestowed a solemn blessing. 
It might be simplified as follows: The old man laid his 
hands on the two bowed heads in solemn blessing. In 
the second sentence a coordinate clause has become a 
participial phrase. In the last sentence, one clause is 
lost and an object complement has become a preposi¬ 
tional phrase. In both sentences the effect, or rhetor¬ 
ical relationship, is changed. The last of the three is 
the simplest, and in it the act of blessing stands out 
more prominently, because unnecessary words are 
omitted. The second is more effective than the first; 
because, of two ideas given as coordinate in the first, 
one is made dependent. We know which is more im¬ 
portant. 

There are many other kinds of grammatical changes 
that have a marked rhetorical effect. A sentence may 
be turned from the active to the passive voice, or from 
the passive to the active voice. An adjective or ad¬ 
verb may be changed into a phrase or a clause. A 
phrase or a clause may be changed to a coordinate 


INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER 


3 


clause or the opposite. A whole sentence may be con¬ 
densed into an interjection. 

4. The Need of Mastering Both Relationships.—It 
is evident, since the two relationships are so closely 
connected, that a study of one should include a study 
of the other. But to use correct and effective English 
requires more than a study of sentences; it demands 
practice in constructing and reconstructing sentences 
for the sake of improvement. To accomplish our ends, 
then, we must do three things: first, study good 
English to gain a knowledge of the laws that govern 
the composing of words into sentences; second, apply 
these laws in constructing sentences of our own; third, 
practice continually the rearranging or reconstructing 
of sentences to improve both the thought and the ex¬ 
pression of it. 

5. The Need of Ideas that are Worth While.— 

Practice in writing sentences is of small value unless 
we are expressing real thoughts and thoughts that are 
worth while. And it is always true, that, if we try to 
express a thought that is worth writing, we shall make 
a better sentence than we make if we simply try to 
write a sentence of a certain kind; such as one contain¬ 
ing an adjective phrase and a dependent clause. We 
might write: Fitz-Jantes, who was lost, met the daughter 
of a man. This sentence would fulfil all requirements, 
but it is worthless. Suppose, however, we try to say 
the most important thing we know about something. 
We might have a sentence like this: Fitz-James, who 
was the King of Scotland in disguise, was befriended by 
the daughter of one of his outlawed courtiers. 


4 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


In our practice work in this book, it is to be our aim 
to write on subjects that we know about, as far as pos¬ 
sible, and to say what we consider a very important 
thought about them each time. If we do this, there 
will be no question about our success. 


CHAPTER I 
The Subject 

6. Function of the Subject.—If we examine several 
ordinary sentences, we shall find that in each there is 
something talked about, and something that is said of 
the thing talked about. The expression, The house on 
the corner , is something that we can talk about, but 
nothing is said about it. If we say, however, The 
house on the corner has been sold, we have expressed 
a thought about the house, and have a sentence. 

It is the function, or office, of the subject, then, to 
stand as the thing about which something is stated or 
asked. It names that about which something is said. 

Exercise A 

7. Find the subject, or that about which something 
is asserted or asked, in the following sentences: 

1. The soldier arose at break of day. 

2. A few minutes later Charlemagne awoke. 

3. Is he at home? 

4. Leaving their seats, the senators rushed to his aid. 

5. Who can turn a hand spring? 

6. What he said is true. 


5 


6 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


7. His sayings were true, though quaint. 

8. At full speed is a phrase. 

9. The study of grammar is interesting and instructive. 

10. Where are my books? My books are where? 

Exercise B 

8. State the most important idea you have about 
the things suggested below, and underscore the words 
representing the things talked about. 

1. The house you live in. 

2. Your favorite pet. 

3. The book you like best. 

4. Your best friend. 

5. An accident that you have witnessed. 

6. Something you have made. 

7. Your work for the day in school. 

8. An amusing experience. 

9. What someone has said. 

10. Your school building. 

11. Your favorite game. 

12. Robin Hood. 

9. The Simple Subject.—In a sentence there may be 
a group of words like, the large black dog in the' street, 
about which we are speaking. One word, however, 
represents the thing spoken of. That word is dog. 
The other words modify it. This principal word we 
call the simple subject , or naked subject. If the sub¬ 
ject is a clause, all the parts of it that are necessary to 
make the clause complete, belong to the simple subject. 
This includes the connective, the subject, verb, and 
complement, if there be any. It excludes all modifiers 
of these parts. For example, What he said is the simple 
subject in the sentence, What he said to me was true. 


THE SUBJECT 


7 


Exercise A 

io. Select the simple subject in each of the following 
sentences: 

1. John chose Henry. 

2. Flowers and ferns grew on the bank of the lake. 

3. By the shining Big-Sea-Water, stood the wigwam of 
‘Nakomis. 

4. Who was there? 

5. Some say one thing, and some say another. 

6. Enjoy all the pleasures of the day. 

7. The beautiful is never plentiful. 

8. Himself is his only dungeon. 

9. Down swept the chill wind from the mountain peak. 

10. A great heavily laden steamer came slowly down the bay. 

11. Whatever he did was done well. 

12. Whatever is worth doing is worth doing well. 

13. To do our best is all that can be expected of us. 


Exercise B 


11. Write sentences containing simple subjects with 
no other modifier than, a, an, the, or my, about, the 
things mentioned below. Say only important things. 


1. The telephone. 

2. Your favorite flower. 

3. Iron. 

4. The city in which you live. 

5. Swimming. 


6. Oranges. 

7. Electricity. 

8. Switzerland. 

9. A wish of yours. 
10. Bees. 


Exercise C 


12. Write sentences about the things in the preced¬ 
ing exercise, which will have subjects with adjective, 
phrase, or clause modifiers. 


8 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


13. The Compound Subject.—Sometimes we wish 
to make the same statement about two or more things. 
In that case the two or more words, phrases, or clauses 
that denote the things we are speaking about we call 
the compound subject. 

Exercise A 

14. Point out the naked subjects in the following 
sentences: 

1. Both birds and bees like flowers. 

2. The mountain and the squirrel had a quarrel v , 

3. Men, women, and children of all classes crowded close 
about the place. 

4. Time and tide wait for no man. 

5. The lion and the mouse became friends. 

6. Scepter and crown must tumble down. 

7. Neither much money nor great fame came to him as a 
reward for his sacrifice. 

8. Either he or I will go in the morning. 

9. Not only one, but a dozen men rose at the sound of the 
bugle. 

10. Both what he said and what he left unsaid showed his 
tact. 

11. Shall they or we go first? 

12. The best of all and the worst of all were to be found in 
that motley ctowd. 

Exercise B 

15. State a really important idea about each of the 
following pairs of things: 

1. Bread and butter. 

2. Paper and pencil. 

3. Winter and spring. 


THE SUBJECT 


9 


4. Your favorite game and your friend’s favorite game. 

5. Grammar and reading. 

6. A steamer and a sail boat. 

7. My friend or myself. 

8. Neither a house nor a barn. 

9. Not Mary but Helen. 

10. The sailor and his wife. 

11. Each and all. 

12. The trolley car and the steam engine. 

16. The Complete Subject.—Almost any subject is 
likely to have some kind of modifier,—an article, an 
adjective, a phrase, or a clause; or it may have several 
of these. The simple subject together with all its 
modifiers is called the complete subject. Not all 
of the modifiers of the subject are always to be. 
found directly with the subject. They may be quite 
distant. The italicized groups of words in the follow¬ 
ing sentences constitute the complete subjects: 

Examples 

1. Kind hearts are more than coronets. 

2. Bounding up, the man in the yellow coat rushed to the 
rescue. 

3. There were more people in the hall than anyone had ex¬ 
pected to see there. 

Exercise A 

17. Point out the complete subjects in each of the 
following sentences: 

1. A happy life is not made up of pleasures. 

2. A nation’s character is the sum of its splendid deeds. 

3. The sleeping ocean lay like a wavy and glittering mirror. 

4. The best hearts are the bravest. 


10 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


5. They that govern make the least noise. 

6. This life of ours is a wild aeolian lay of many joyous 
strains. 

7. Cheerfulness, the chief characteristic of hope, is like 
glances of sunshine on a cloudy day. 

8. The power to do is not given to all. 

9. A mocking bird in the yard had grown very tame. 

10. A king with a large jaw and a queen with a plain face 
sat upon the throne of England. 

11. The fact that most birds are both far-sighted and near¬ 
sighted can be learned by a little observation. 

12. Some birds, such as owls, take their food whole. 

13. Ringing down the stairs, went the precious little bells. 

14. A man of sixty, handsomely dressed, haughty in manner, 
and with a face like a fine mask, stood before them. 

15. Bestowing a word of praise here and a smile there, the 
great man passed down through the hall and out into the 
crowded street. 

16. The quiet lodgings in Soho Square were a kind of refuge 
to him. 

17. These quiet lodgings, which were a sort of refuge to 
him, were in Soho Square. 

Exercise B 

18. Write sentences the complete subjects of which 
contain adjectives, appositives, prepositional phrases, 
participial phrases, or clauses, as modifiers. Let each 
sentence be the best expression you can give to an in¬ 
teresting thought about one of the following: 

1. A robin or a humming-bird. 

2. The place where you spend your summer. 

3. The crow or blackbird. 

4. A hen and chickens. 

5. A sugar maple tree. 

6. A man whom you respect greatly. 


THE SUBJECT 


II 


7. What boys like to learn. 

8. What girls ought to learn at home. , 

9. An interesting accident that you have witnessed. 

10. The creek in the near pasture. 

11. A wild animal you know about. 

12. The making of something. 

19. Position of the Subject.—In the simplest form 
of the sentence, the subject naturally comes first. This 
arrangement is called the normal order. There are, 
however, other arrangements which are better for the 
expression of certain ideas, and often necessary for 
clearness. Examine the following: 

1. The Marquis went up the steps. 

2. Up the broad flight of shallow steps, the Marquis went 
from his carriage. 

3. Up the broad flight of shallow steps from the carriage en- 
rance went the Marquis to meet his nephew. 

4. The Marquis went up the broad flight of shallow steps from 
the carriage entrance to meet his nephew. 

The first of these sentences is direct and simple. 
There is no attempt to do more than make a plain 
statement of fact. In the second sentence, better ef¬ 
fect is produced by placing at the beginning a phrase 
that modifies the verb and would come immediately 
after the verb, if the sentence were to follow the nor¬ 
mal order. By the present arrangement, emphasis is 
thrown upon the phrase up the broctd flight of shallow 
steps. In the third sentence a further change is made. 
Verb and subject are inverted to bring the subject near 
the phrase to meet his nephew. Observe how weak the 
fourth sentence is when compared with the third. 


12 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


Exercise A 

20. By placing the italicized portions in a different 
position make the following sentences stronger or 
clearer: 

1. Night sank upon the dusky beach. 

2. The surly canon waited without , meanwhile. 

3. A modest violet grew down in a green and shady bed. 

4. He draws that broad sword for the rights of fair England. 

5. That broad sword he draws for the rights of fair England. 

6. An hour and a half limped heavily away in the crowded 
passages below. 

7. No sister’s sweet companionship he had. 

8. She , not yet trusting the tones of her voice, sat down be¬ 
side him. 

9. A chair of oriental pattern stood opposite him. 

10. The guest paced from end to end of the elegant room, 
thinking over the incidents of the day's journey. 

Exercise B 

21. On the subjects given below write sentences in 
which the subjects are, for good reasons, thrown out 
of their natural, or normal, order. Be sure that the 
thoughts you express are worth while. 

1. A beautiful place in the country. 

2. A remarkable incident. 

3. What you saw at a destructive fire. 

4. A railroad wreck. 

5. An exciting moment in a story. 

6. The most thrilling scene in a play. 

7. Your first view of the ocean. 

8. The sound at Niagara. 

9. A winter snow storm. 

10. The value of manual training. 


THE SUBJECT 


J 3 


22. Expletives “There” and “It”.—Sometimes in 
order to throw the subject to a position toward the end 
of the sentence, the introductory there or it is used. 
When employed in this way they are called expletives. 

Examples 

i . It is uncertain whether or not they will do it. 

2. There is need of his doing everything in his power. 

Exercise A 

23. In the sentences given below, point out all the 
expletives. Also indicate the subject in each sentence. 
Be careful to distinguish between expletive uses and 
the ordinary uses of there and it. 

1. There was a sound of revelry by night. 

2. There he stood like a great pillar. 

3. Other sound than the owl’s voice there was none. 

4. It is not probable that he will arrive to-night. 

5. There was no one to be found, when he arrived. 

6. It is mine. 

7. It was a fine specimen of baronial architecture—this 
chateau of the marquis. 

8. There was not a man in the whole company that did not 
fear the outcome. 

9. It is time that the reform should come. 

10. It is excellent to have a giant’s strength, but it is tyran¬ 
nous to use it like a giant. 

Exercise B 

24. Improve the following sentences by using the 
expletive it or there, thus throwing the real subject to 
a different position in the sentence. 


14 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


1. To receive is good but to bestow is better. 

2. No escape was visible from immediate disaster. 

3. To be gentle is the test of a lady. 

4. That he has not succeeded is not his fault. 

5. To be true is manly, chivalrous, Christian. 

6. Two blighting seasons came when the fields were left 
with half a harvest. 

7. My advice is that you endeavor to be honestly rich or 
contentedly poor. 

8. To find reasons why other folks should be patient is easy. 

9. No time is to be lost. 

10. Among the trees was a light twittering. 

11. This caring for the wounded is a sad business. 

12. A voice came from the darkness. 

13. A merry brown thrush is sitting up in the tree. 

14. Many brave knights stood around the throne. 

15. To surround the town and cut off communications was 
planned. 

16. To start a business requires capital. 

25. Kinds of Subjects.—Examine the following sen¬ 
tences to find out the various grammatical elements 
that may serve as subjects: 

1. Contentment is a virtue. 

2. The strong should never take advantage of their strength 
to oppress the weak. 

3. Who invented the steam engine? 

4. Out of debt is usually out of trouble. 

5. To fail is often the truest success. 

6. Being one J s best is more of a privilege than a duty. 

7. Whither the enemy had fled, could not be learned. 

The Subject may be: 

1. A noun. 

2. A pronoun. 

3. An adjective preceded by the article the. 


THE SUBJECT 


15 


4. A prepositional phrase. 

5. An infinitive. 

6. A present participle. 

7. A clause. 


Exercise A 

26. Point out the subject in each sentence below, 
and tell whether it is a noun, a pronoun, an adjective, 
or a prepositional phrase. 

1. The fountain in the village flowed unseen. 

2. I may neither choose whom I would nor refuse whom I 
dislike. 

3. When shall we three meet again? 

4. The worst had been expected for hours. 

5. Out of fashion is out of the world. 

6. James, Henry will do the work. 

7. What is that looming up across the bay? 

8. This is no time for hesitation or delay. 

9. Casement windows and crazy doors were unbarred. 

10. In doors is not always in safety. 

11. Whatever he says can be relied upon. 

12. Driving an engine at sixty miles an hour is an intense 
nervous strain. 


Exercise B 

27. Write good, thoughtful sentences, using the fol¬ 
lowing words as subjects: 


I. 

The noblest. 

7. Yours. 

2 . 

This. 

8. Under the ground. 

3 - 

The mayor. 

9. The rich. 

4 - 

Out of sight. 

10. To do one’s best. 

5 * 

The tops of the trees. 

11. The heaviest. 

6 . 

Whatever is best. 

12. Making mistakes. 


i6 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


Exercise C 

28. Point out the participles and infinitives that 
serve as subjects in the following sentences: 

1. To perform his duty is expected of every man. 

2. Fording this stream was no easy matter. 

3. To remain what one is, is not life; for fife implies growth. 

4. Theirs not to question why, 

Theirs but to do and die. 

5. To attack the enemy at daybreak was his plan. 

6. Giving directions is one thing; following them, is another. 

7. Timely batting is a leading factor in winning games. 

8. At all events, our arriving by tomorrow can be depended 
on. 

9. To read and write well are desirable accomplishments. 

10. Upon his return studying was begun in earnest. 

Exercise D 

29. Construct sentences in which you use the follow¬ 
ing infinitives or participles as subjects: 


1. To explain. 

7. To find fault. 

2. Making excuses. 

8. Being able to. 

3. Being late. 

9. To see Niagara. 

4. To succeed. 

10. Doing what we like. 

5. The emancipating of. 

11. To see the right. 

6. To be useful. 

12. Pointing out the way. 


Exercise E 

30. Select the subject in each of the following sen¬ 
tences, and tell what kind of subject each is: 

1. What he never had can be lost by no man. 

2. It is a secret worth knowing that lawyers rarely go to 


THE SUBJECT 


17 


3. That a scholar should be a recluse is a notion that goes 
in the world. 

4. Whither old Argus had fled no one could tell. 

5. That we shall camp out is his present plan. 

6. Whatever he decides to do will be satisfactory to me. 

7. Where he goes will depend upon his health. 

8. What he said was never doubted. 

9. That you have wronged me doth appear in this. 

10. Whoever succeeds will succeed only after untiring effort. 

11. Whom it belongs to cannot be learned. 

12. It is said that the world is in a state of bankruptcy. 


Exercise F 

31. Write thoughtful sentences, using the following 
as subjects: 

1. What he thinks about the matter. 

2. Whether it rains or not. 

3. When he comes. 

4. That they are on the road to success. 

5. What they did. 

6. That Lee was a great general. 

7. Whether he went. 

8. Whatever he says. 

9. When the army will return. 

10. Where she had placed the package. 


CHAPTER II 


Modifiers of the Subject 

32. The Function of Subject Modifiers.—Many of 
the nouns which we use as subjects are common; that 
is, they refer to any one of a class of objects. For ex¬ 
ample, the word tree refers to no particular tree or par¬ 
ticular kind of tree. It may refer to an apple tree, a 
maple tree, a large tree, a small tree, a live tree, or a 
dead tree. To refer to any particular tree we must use 
some additional word or words that will limit, or re¬ 
strict, the general idea tree to the particular tree of 
which we wish to speak. To do this is one of the func¬ 
tions of the modifier. 

Sometimes we may be talking about an object that 
is clearly designated, but we wish the person to whom 
we are speaking to get a clear idea of the nature of the 
object, or of what is happening or has happened to it. 
Then we use words, phrases or clauses that describe it 
or give additional information about it. This is the 
second function of modifiers of the subject. 

The functions of subject modifiers, then, are to limit, 
or restrict, the meaning of the simple subject, and to 
describe the simple subject or give some additional 
information about it. 

33. The Adjective as Modifier.—The simplest 
form of subject modifier is the adjective. In general 

18 


MODIFIERS OF THE SUBJECT 


19 


we make two classes of adjectives, in accordance with 
the functions they perform, and call them limiting ad¬ 
jectives or descriptive adjectives. Limiting adjectives 
may be subdivided into two classes, pronominal ad¬ 
jectives , and numeral adjectives. Often, too, the de¬ 
scriptive adjective serves to do the limiting by means 
of its descriptive power. 

For example, in answer to the question, Which book 
is yours ? we might say, The red one. In this case red 
performs both functions of the modifier: it designates 
the particular book, and tells us something about its 
appearance. 


Exercise A 

34. Point out all the adjectives in the sentences that 
follow, and explain the particular function of each. 

1. Innocent men fear no accusation. 

2. In a big white house, lived a tiny old maid. 

3. Blue as the sky it reflected, the lake lay at our feet. 

4. Twelve long heavy hours have passed since we ate. 

5. His voice, weak and faltering, gave no clue to his identity. 

6. This beautiful country, rich and beautiful was soon to 
be desolate. 

7. The inspectors deemed the brig unsea worthy. 

8. During the night a mantle of snow had made our world 

dazzling white. ' • 

9. Speech is great, but silence is greater. 

10. He has an intellectual vision, clear, wide, piercing, 
methodical. 

11. Yonder forest still has something of its primeval state. 

12. Fine manners are the mantle of fair minds. 

13. Her voice was ever soft, gentle, and low, an excellent 
thing in women. 


20 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


14. Our way lay through fields ready for harvest. 

15. These things should not be considered so lightly. 

Exercise B 

35. Insert in the blank spaces below words that 
limit properly the subject. 

1. -boats are sailing on the bay. 

2. -building stands on the opposite comer. 

3. In this park there are-acres. 

4. Only-people were present. 

5. -line in the clear whiteness of his face, was cruelly, 

craftily, and closely compressed. 

6. -the people of the village were at the fountain. 

7. To his question-answer was given. 

8. In the middle of the room stood-tables, upon which 

were strewn manuscripts. 

9. -night the town was illuminated. 

10. There was but-doctor in the whole town. 

11. -people seek only to amuse themselves. 

12. His - movement after the shock had been to work 

in his loom. 

Exercise C 

36. Select the words in parentheses that you think 
most thoroughly descriptive, to fill the following 
blanks: 

1. A-odor comes from locust blossoms (strong, pun¬ 

gent, sweet). 

2. A-oak stood by the road side as a signal of desola¬ 

tion (palsied, shattered, old). 

3. Swift ran the-tempest overhead (keen, loud, search¬ 

ing, roaring). 

4. The - children hurried on past the old woman 

(bright, gay, happy, laughing). 


MODIFIERS OF THE SUBJECT 


21 


5. A-friend is a possession more valuable than parks 

and palaces (amiable, clever, good, faithful). 

6. The - man finds something romantic in dangerous 

enterprises (courageous, adventurous, fearless, brave). 

7. A-cavalier was riding by (valiant, real, tall, tower¬ 

ing, noble). 

8 . The - ocean lay like a wavy and glittering mirror 

(great, broad, wide, sleeping). 

9. The fir trees-seemed to be stretching their tops far 

up to the sky (dark, gloomy, somber, black). 

10. There were three horses, all -and - (fast, fine, 

spirited, handsome, graceful). 

11. The river - and - flows on (swift, clear, rapid, 

smooth, lovely, pure). 

12. The - stranger gazed around him, and then raised 

the fallen weapon (fair, good looking, handsome). 

37. The Phrase Modifier.—There are three kinds of 
phrase modifiers, the prepositional phrase, the infini¬ 
tive phrase, and the participial phrase. The particip¬ 
ial phrase will be considered later. What is the value 
of the phrase over the adjective as modifier? Its func¬ 
tion is the same as that of the simple adjective. The 
phrase is used to describe objects, to restrict terms, to 
limit ideas, and to present additional information. 
Because of their wide variety in meaning, prepo¬ 
sitions in English express relationship much more def¬ 
initely than the adjective, and give a directness, a va¬ 
riety, and an ease in expression of thought that can be 
secured by no other means. 

Examples 

1. He is a man of wide experience. 

2. Robin Hood of Huntington went to live in the greenwood. 

3. The hounds of spring are on winter’s traces. 


22 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


Exercise A 

38. Point out each phrase modifier of the subject 
in the following sentences, and explain the particular 
function of each: 

1. The door of the doctor’s room opened. 

2. The calmness of his manner was unaltered. 

3. The bright glitter on the water made our eyes ache. 

4. His desire for learning was greater than his ability. 

5. Earth with her thousand voices praises God. 

6. A book by an ancient author gave us our information 
on the subject. 

7. The train for Richfield leaves in five minutes. 

8. A great oak in front of the house proclaimed its own 
dignity. 

9. His willingness to answer all questions was of great help. 

10. The kindly rays of the sun shone directly down upon 
the old prisoner’s head. 

11. His familiarity with the customs, manners, actions, and 
writings of the ancients, makes him a very keen observer of 
conditions in the present world. 

12. This feeling of generosity seemed to extend to all. 

13. Scott’s humor in conversation, as in his works, was 
genial and free from sting. 

14. Her ability to narrate and to describe graphically was * 
wonderful. 

15. The feeling of bashfulness soon gave way before good 
cheer and affability. 


Exercise B 

39. Substitute adjectives for the italicized phrases 
and phrases for the italicized adjectives in the follow¬ 
ing sentences: 

Thus: National degeneracy is due to war. 

The degeneracy of nations is due to war. 


MODIFIERS OF THE SUBJECT 


2 3 


1. A man of wisdom is usually a man of a few words. 

2. The mint at San Francisco turns out thousands of gold 
coins daily. 

3. The terrified people ran madly in all directions. 

4. The carol of the bird was loud and high. 

5. The fountain in the village flowed unseen and unheard. 

6. The New York train was late. 

7. Not every knife with steel blades is so strong. 

8. The taste of the English in the cultivation of land, and in 
landscape gardening is unrivalled. 

9. St. MicheaFs church is enriched with the tombs of many 
people of renown. 

10. A little man of great politeness and humility greeted them. 

11. The eyes gaze with wonder at the gigantic columns of 
Westminster Abbey. 

12. These traditional tales and ballads of Scotland have lived 
for ages in new circulation. 

13. It is a miserable mental state to see few things of interest. 

14. His locks of gray silver venerably shaded his temples. 

40. The Clause as Modifier.—-A clause that modi¬ 
fies a subject is an adjective clause. It performs the 
same general function as the adjective and adjective 
phrase. The adjective clause, therefore, does two 
things: it restricts the meaning of the subject, or limits 
its application, to a particular thing; or gives some ad¬ 
ditional information about an already restricted sub¬ 
ject. Clauses of this kind are, accordingly, called re¬ 
strictive or additional according to what they do. 

Adjective clauses are usually introduced by relative 
pronouns , relative adverbs, or temporal adverbs. 

Examples 

1. He who would live nobly must think nobly. 

2. The place where we stopped was beautiful. 

3. The hour when they will leave is uncertain. 


24 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


Exercise A 

41. Point out the clauses that modify the subjects 
in the sentences below, and explain whether the func¬ 
tion is to restrict or to give additional information. 

1. The miners, who were under a superstitious dread, stead¬ 
fastly refused to descend. 

2. The place where he stood brought back many pleasant 
memories. 

3. The platform whereon they were standing fell with a 
crash, which could be heard blocks away. 

4. His cottage, which is situated on the lake front, is one of 
the finest that the country affords. 

5. Milton’s literary work until he became interested in the 
Puritan Rebellion, was almost entirely poetical in nature. 

6. The meeting to which they looked forward with greatest 
pleasure was with Bantam. 

7. There are some authors who seem proof against the mu¬ 
tability of language, because they have rooted themselves in 
the unchanging principles of human nature. 

8. The moon, that once was round and full, is now a silver 
boat. 

9. There was one person who watched with keen interest 
the prosperous growth of Eppie. 

10. The reason why he, failed to come was not explained. 

11. The time before the examination begins can well be spent 
in reviewing the work. 

12. Harry, the new boy who had entered school, instantly 
became very popular. 

13. The wanderers, who had been climbing all day, reached 
the summit of the mountain at sunset. 

14. The hour when they should arrive was not given. 

15. The village housewives, who look upon the stage coach¬ 
man as a man of great trust and dependence, hold frequent 
conferences with him. 


MODIFIERS OF THE SUBJECT 25 

16. The months since he has been in the city have passed 
quite rapidly. 

17. The inn where Sir Roger and the Spectator spent the 
night was kept by a Tory. 

18. The first visit which Scott made to Loch Katrine was in 
his boyhood days. 

42. Punctuation of Adjective Clauses.—If you ex¬ 
amine the clause modifiers in the preceding exercise, 
you will find that the additional clauses are all set of 
from the rest of the sentence by commas. The re¬ 
strictive clause is not set off by commas unless it is 
separated from the subject by other modifiers. If so 
separated it is preceded by a comma. 

Exercise B 

43. By completing the clauses, make strong, 
thoughtful sentences of the following, and insert 
needed commas: 

1. The popularity which - was due wholly to his un¬ 

usual good nature and his sterling honesty. 

2. The time when —-— is called the primitive age. 

3. The world upon which-was one of spotless white. 

4. The place whence-could not be learned by the most 

accomplished of his inquisitors. 

5. The first week after-was spent in the mountains. 

6 . The place where-was farther up the river. 

7. The men who-represent the highest and noblest 

spirit of which a race is capable. 

8. The day when-was a sad one for the poor Acadians. 

9. Some years ago a boy who-found a young cub near 

Lake Winnepeg. 

10. The Poet’s Corner which-occupies one of the cross 

isles of Westminster Abbey. 


26 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


11. The elves and sprites of which-are frequent in Scot¬ 

tish legend. 

12. Nearby was a lake which-. 

13. The old harper who-began twanging his instrument 

with a vast deal more power than melody. 

14. The school-house which-was rudely constructed of 

logs. 

15. Ichabod who ——- now quickened his steed. 

16. The parson who-was a meagre, blacklooking man, 

with a grizzled wig. 


Exercise C 

44. Sometimes adjectives or phrases may serve bet¬ 
ter than clauses. Change the clause modifiers of the 
subject in each of the sentences below to adjectives or 
phrases, including infinitives; and explain whether or 
not the sentence is improved. 

1. His eyes, which were keen and piercing, held us like a 
spell. 

2. Among her pupils were several who were older than 
herself. 

3. His ambition, which was to secure the presidency of the 
club, was at last attained. 

4. The country, which was yet naked and leafless, was just 
beginning to feel the warm breath of spring. 

5. The conversation of Scott, which was frank, hearty, 
and picturesque, was a delight to all his friends. 

6. The woodpecker, who had golden wings and a crimson 
crest, was giving his farewell banquet too. 

7. His wish, which was to be among those chosen, was 
granted. 

8. The first who went was my brother. 

9. A purple shell, which is very beautiful, can be found 
there. 

10. A hunter, who had with him a pack of dogs^ drew near. 


MODIFIERS OF THE SUBJECT 27 

11. The only way by which they could reach there in time 
was by the night express-. 

12. The services which are held in the church at Christmas 
time are extremely tender and inspiring. 

13. The room which had been finished presented a pleasing 
effect of comfort and neatness to the eye. 

45. The Appositive as Modifier.—A noun placed 
after another noun to limit or explain it, or to give 
some additional information about it, is said'to be in 
apposition. It is in the same case as the noun which it 
explains. Such nouns are the equivalents of adjec¬ 
tives, as they perform the function of adjectives, 
phrases or clauses; more frequently of clauses. 

46. Punctuation of Appositives.—You will see, by 
observing the appositives in the following exercise, 
that an appositive expression is cut off from the rest 
of the sentence by commas. 

Exercise A 

47. Transform the appositives in the sentences be¬ 
low into clauses, and explain whether or not the sen¬ 
tences are improved by the changes. In making the 
changes , be careful to use commas to cut of all ad¬ 
ditional clauses. 

1. Mr. Joyner, the first man to settle in these parts, was an 
extraordinary man. 

2. Henry, the chief offender, was punished severely. 

3. The fishermen, at that time inhabitants of Old Salem, 
were the first to rise to the call of liberty. 

4. The American buffalo, or bison, is nearly extinct. 

5. His friend, the butler, gave an account of his illness. 


28 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


6. Sir Roger, a baronet of ancient descent, was a member 
of the Club. 

7. His son, the joy and pride of his life, left home. 

8. Two English tourists, both gentlemen of fortune, ar¬ 
rived that day. 

9. Mr. Laidlaw, the steward of the estate, accompanied 
us on one of our rambles. 

10. Moses, a plain, simple minded man, was a favorite among 
the children of the village. 

11. The baron, though a small man, had a large soul. 

12. Vast lawns, with here and there clumps of gigantic 
trees, extended out like sheets of vivid green. 

13. There stood the old church, with its low, massive portal. 

14. His desire to know more about these matters lured him 
back again. 

Exercise B 

48. Write thoughtful sentences containing appos- 
itive modifiers of the subject, using the following as 
things to write about: 

1. Your grocer. 

2. The house you admire most. 

3. Washington at Valley Forge. 

4. Ferdinand and Isabella. 

5. The oldest inhabitant in your neighborhood. 

6. The King of England. 

7. Your best friend. 

8. A voyage on the ocean. 

9. The most interesting trip for a boy. 

10. The school you attend. 

49. The Possessive Case as Modifier.—A noun in 

the possessive case is often necessary to limit properly 
the noun subject. It then performs the function of re¬ 
stricting, and is, accordingly, the equivalent of a re- 


MODIFIERS OF THE SUBJECT 


2 9 


strictive, or limiting, adjective. If the possessive case 
has an appositive, only the second of the two nouns is 
given possessive form. Thus: Henry, the miller's 
horse is in front of the house. This sentence, however, 
would be better if reconstructed, thus: The horse of 
Henry , the miller, is in front of the house. 

Exercise 

50. Sometimes possessives sound harsh and awk¬ 
ward. Point out all the possessive modifiers of sub¬ 
jects in the following sentences, arid change such as 
are harsh, into phrases or clauses: 

1. Cassius’s plan.to get Brutus into the conspiracy against 
Caesar was successful. 

2. Mildred, my sister’s plan is to go to college next year. 

3. Brutus’s purpose in entering the conspiracy was noble. 

4. The carpenter’s son John has just returned from a 
journey to the far North. 

5. Thomas, the gardener’s cozy home had a bright light 
shining from it. 

6. King Arthur’s sword Excalibur was cast into the sea. 

7. The moon’s face was round and full. 

8. The attorney-general’s term had expired. 

9. Mr. Brown, your father’s friend, will help you. 

10. The fish’s weight was two pounds. 

11. Cassius’s knowledge of men was superior to Octavius’s. 

51. The Participle as Modifier.—There are two 
ways in which the participle serves as modifier of the 
subject. It is used as a direct adjective modifier, thus: 
Howling winds are piping loud. Howling we call a 
participial adjective. A participle may take an object 


3 ° 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


or modifiers, thus forming a phrase. This is called a 
participial phrase. 

Examples 

Adjective: The throbbing engine slowed down. 

Phrase: Making their way with extreme care, they gained the 
bridge in safety. 

52. Punctuation of the Participial Phrase.—Wheth¬ 
er they precede or follow the noun which they modify, 
participial phrases are set off from the rest of the sen¬ 
tence by commas. 

Example: They departed, meditating on these things. 

Exercise A 

53. Point out all the participial modifiers of sub¬ 
ject nouns in the following sentences, and explain 
whether they are participial adjectives, or participial 
phrases. 

1. The stone face, staring blindly at the night, suddenly 
seemed to light up. 

2. Unseen and unheard, flowed the fountain at the village. 

3. Melting away as if by magic, the gold in the west dis¬ 
appeared. 

4. The settling dust gathered deep over everything. 

5. Having finished his work, he returned home. 

6. The old knight, turning his head about once or thrice 
to take a survey of the great metropolis, bid me observe how 
thick the city was set with churches. 

7. Having notified my good friend of my departure, I set 
out for London. 

8. Having returned to my inn, I could not but reflect on 
the singular gift of the poet. 


MODIFIERS OF THE SUBJECT 31 

9. Every sheltered bark yielded its silver rill of cold and 
limpid water. 

10. A robin, perched upon the top of a mountain ash, was 
basking himself in the sunshine. 

11. The incident, long forgotten, was brought to mind. 

12. Waking from a deep sleep, he rose and looked about 
him. 

Exercise B 

54. Participial modifiers are the equivalents of 
clauses; and sometimes sentences will be made stronger 
if we convert these modifiers into clauses. Change the 
participial constructions in the sentences below into 
clauses and explain whether or not the sentences are 
improved. Observe proper punctuation in making the 
changes. Thus: 

Participle: Coming up, he accosted us. 

Clause: When he had come up, he accosted us. 

1. The rising wind lashed the sea into a fury. 

2. The weaver, having returned to his house late at night, 
found himself robbed. 

3. Distressed at his pitiable condition, Sir Launfal shared 
with the leper his last crust. 

4. Using weapons so commonly, they become careless about 
them. 

5. Dunstan, slamming the door behind him, left Godfrey 
to his own thoughts. 

6. Having searched the. meadow in vain, he got over the 
stile into the next field. 

7. The old Chief, feeling now well-nigh his end, called his 
two children to his side. 

8. The brook, murmuring through the pebbles, kept on its 
way to the river. 

9. Holding his white head on one side and playing vigor- 


3 2 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


ously, Solomon marched forward at the head of the gay pro¬ 
cession into the White Parlor. 

10. The road, winding through a noble avenue of trees, 
brought us at last to the old mansion. 

11. The morning, being remarkably fine and clear, was spent 
in taking a long walk. 

12. In winter, nature, despoiled of every charm and wrapped 
in her shroud of snow, can give us little delight. 

55. The Position of Subject Modifiers.—It is a 

general rule that modifiers should be placed near the 
words they modify. Sometimes, however, for the sake 
of emphasis, a modifier is separated from the subject, 
and placed either at the beginning or end of the sen¬ 
tence, as these are the two most emphatic positions. 
Adjectives usually precede, though they sometimes 
follow, the noun. Phrases and clauses usually follow, 
though they sometimes precede. Participial phrases 
either precede or follow and are often widely separated 
from the noun. 


Exercise A 

56. Find all the subject modifiers in the sentences 
below, and tell of what kind each modifier is. 

1. The bachelor, a jolly, smiling, red-haired man was not 
disposed to answer rashly. 

2. Unwarmed by any sunset light, . 

The gray day darkened into night. 

3. Clad in doublet and hose, and boots of Cordovan leather, 
Strode, with a martial air Miles Standish, 

The Puritan Captain. 

4. Hearing a shout, she ran to the door. 


MODIFIERS OF THE SUBJECT 


33 


5. The appearance of Rip, with his long grizzled beard and 
his rusty fowling piece, soon attracted the attention of the 
tavern politicians. 

6. An iceberg, tall as a steeple, came floating by. 

7. The voyager, stopping at the foot of these fairy moun¬ 
tains, may have seen the shingle-roofs of the houses below gleam 
among the trees. 

8. Shakespeare’s chair, the most famous object of curiosity, 
stands in the chimney nook of a small gloomy chamber. 

9. Having pursued the road for about three miles, I turned 
off into a footpath. 

10. The front of the house, which is completely in the old 
style, has a great bow-window of heavy stone-work and a portal 
with armorial bearings over it. 

11. My preparations to leave the abbey were quickly made. 

12. There are few who understand the poem. 

13. The cost to keep up this building is great. 

14. A speaker, strong and earnest, would have won their 
support readily. 

15. He lives long who lives well. 

16. Of all retreats this one seemed safest. 

17. The country whence he came was unknown. 

18. No mortal builder’s most rare device could match this 
winter-palace of ice. 

19. Up over the steep mountain climbed the man, footsore 
and weary. 

20. A stranger, a man with a healthful complexion and sil¬ 
ver hair, greeted him. 


Exercise B 

57. Improve the sentences below by changing the 
position of the italicized modifiers or by changing the 
nature of the modifier; that is, by transforming a 
phrase or an appositive into a clause, or a clause into 
some other form of modifier. 


34 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


1. Gareth overtook Lynette, putting spurs to his horse. 

2. Over the fireplace, standing by a white horse, was the por¬ 
trait of a warrior. 

3. Drifting at a distance one day, a helpless vessel was de¬ 
scribed. 

4. Fine-featured, tall, but with a slight droop to the shoulders, 
the speaker rose to his feet. 

5. He, with his head resting on his hand, sat half murmuring 
and half meditating. 

6. The morning sun, bright and red, shone down upon us. 

7. Paul at length descended, overcome by fatigue, from the 
tree. 

8. The wanderer, who was friendless and penniless, landed 
at Dover. 

9. Not half a mile off, staggering up the mountain, was the 
deer. 

10. The boy, who. was maddened by the chase, pressed forward. 

11. Two young men, Sercombe and Palmer, had come to the 
country to hunt. 

12. Tall, somber, and grim, the pines rise against the morning 
sky. 

13. William Wordsworth, who was one of the Lake poets, was 
born in England. 

14. Molly Pitcher, unsung and almost unremembered, should 
share in the honors heaped on other heroines. 

15. A man, tall like himself, stood before him. 

' 16. One of the most exquisite of all Nature's fondlings, the 

trailing arbutus, begins to peep above the ground very early 
in the spring. 


CHAPTER III 


The Predicate 

59. Function of the Predicate. —In our discussion 
of the subject, we learned that a sentence is a state¬ 
ment about something, and that the subject is that 
about which something is asserted. It is the function 
of the predicate to do the asserting, to say something 
of the subject. The word predicate means to affirm 
or declare. 

Exercise A 

60. Point out the words that do the affirming, de¬ 
claring, or asserting, in the following sentences: * 

1. Birds fly. 

2. Jerry was left in the mist and darkness alone. 

3. We know men of greater knowledge. 

4. And still, as each repeated pleasure tired, 

Succeeding sports the mirthful band inspired. 

5. So said they, and Priam lifted up his voice and called 
to Helen. 

6. And answer made King Arthur, breathing hard: 

“My end draws nigh; ’tis time that I were gone.” 

7. This wall defended the Britons for a time, and the Scots 
and Piets were shut out from the fine rich land and inclosed 
within their own mountains. 

8. “You have no occasion to suspect any harm from us,” 
answered the man. 


35 


36 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


g. Belshazzar the King made a great feast to a thousand of 
his lords, and drank wine before the thousand. 

io. After this King Arthur and his knights performed 
wonderful deeds of valor. 

n. Much have I traveled in the realms of gold. 

12. “You speak truly, sir,” said Mr. Pickwick. 


Exercise B 


6i. State an important thought about each of the 
following subjects and designate the words that do the 
asserting: 


1. The horse. 

2. Lincoln. 

3. This locomotive. 

4. The verb. 

5. Last winter. 

6. Snow. 


7. A typewriter. 

8. This orange. 

9. A sky-scraper. 

10. The President. 

11. Old friends. 


12. This lake. 


62. The Simple Predicate.—The simple predicate 
consists of the verb that does the asserting, just as the 
simple subject consists of the substantive about which 
something is affirmed. If we examine a considerable 
number of sentences, we shall find, too, that the verb 
may consist of one, two, three, or four words, just as 
the subject may consist of several words in the form of 
a phrase or a clause. Sometimes the words that con¬ 
stitute the verb are found together in the sentence, 
and sometimes they are separated. 


Examples 


1. He has come. 

2. Has he come? 

3. They will be coming soon. 


THE PREDICATE 


37 


4. This should have been done long ago. 

5. When should this work have been done? 

6. They are really not coming back. 

63. The Verb Phrase.—A verb made up of two or 
more parts is called a verb phrase. 

Exercise A 

64. Point out all the verbs, or simple predicates, in 
the following sentences: 

1. King Arthur defeated the heathen in twelve great battles. 

2. Do you like this account of King Arthur’s life? 

3. He had been surveying the building a long time. 

4. When shall we three meet again? 

5. Can Elizabeth have been really searching all this time? 

6. I had not thought of such a thing. 

7. Where have you been? 

8. Could he have forgotten the time? 

9. She should have been more careful. 

10. Grief and terror had so stupefied their senses that they 
did not know Prospero. 

11. Good sense must, in many cases, determine good breed¬ 
ing. 

12. “Must I then leave you? Must I needs forego 
So good, so noble, and so true a master?” 

13. Why do I remember that which I would forget! 

14. We should not have planned to go so soon. 

Exercise B 

65. Write a thoughtful sentence about each of the 
following subjects, and underscore the verb predicate 
in each: 


3 » 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


1. My grandfather’s farm. 

2. My first day at school. 

3. Life in the city. 

4. A winter sunset. 

5. Honey bees. 

6. The old saw mill. 

7. My room. 


8. A bicycle. 

9. Joan of Arc. 

10. My favorite aunt. 

11. An incident. 

12. Wilhelm Tell. 

13. Our flower garden. 

14. Tennis. 


66. The Complete Predicate.—Many verbs require 
other words, phrases, or clauses to complete or limit 
their meaning. The verb and all other words or groups 
of words that are joined to it to modify in any way or 
complete its meaning, constitute the complete predi¬ 
cate. 


Exercise A 


67. In the sentences below point out all of the words 
that form a part of the complete predicate; and ex¬ 
plain which parts complete the meaning of the verb 
and which ones limit or restrict its meaning. 

1. He walked unsteadily. 

2. They went to the country. 

3. He gave his arm to his daughter. 

4. We cannot go, if it snows. 

5. As soon as he arrives, we shall know what to do. 

6. As they approached the gate of the palace, one of the 
sergeants told them that they could not at present enter. 

7. The latent uneasiness in his mind was roused to vigor¬ 
ous life by this letter. 

8. After the deed was done, Bruce might be called desperate. 

9. King Robert’s first idea was to return to Arras after 
this disappointment. 

10. ’Tis merry, ’tis merry in good greenwood 
Though the birds have stilled their singing. 


THE PREDICATE 


39 


11. The Assyrian came down like a wolf'on the fold. 

12. Arthur, though only fifteen years old at the time of his 
father’s death, was elected king at a general meeting of the 
nobles. 

13. So saying, from the pavement he half rose, 

Slowly, with pain, reclining on his arm. 

14. Pray, do you remember never to be ashamed of doing 
what is right. 

15. This quick and unobserved observation is of infinite 
advantage in life and is to be acquired with care. 

16. Oft in the stilly night, 

Ere slumber’s chains have bound me, 

Fond memory brings the light 
Of other days around me. 


Exercise B 


68 . On each of the subjects given below, write a 
thoughtfully expressed sentence of from fifteen to 
twenty-five words. Underscore all parts of the pred¬ 
icate. 


1. A cloud burst. 

2. Catching a train. 

3. My first cooking. 

4. Skating in winter. 

5. A football game. 

6. Mt. Washington. 

7. A country fair. 


8. An old tavern. 

9. The first frost. 

10. A deserted house. 

11. A perfect spring day. 

12. The woods in autumn. 

13. A busy street. 

14. Roller skating. 


69. Compound Predicates.—More than one thing 
may be affirmed of the subject. In such a case we 
have, of course, more than one verb, or simple pred¬ 
icate. A predicate containing two or more verbs is 
called compound. 


4o 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


Examples 

1. It rained and snowed. 

2. He came , but did not remain long. 

3. He jell or was thrown down. 

Exercise A 

70. Point out the compound predicates in the sen¬ 
tences below, and make a list of the conjunctions by 
which the various verbs are connected. 

1. The sun rises and sets. 

2. We went but found nothing. 

3. Will you go along with us, or remain here? 

4. Drink deep, or taste not the Pierian Spring. 

5. For the Angel of Death spread his wings on the blast 
And breathed in the face of the foe as he passed. 

6. Then quickly rose Sir Bedivere, and ran, 

And, leaping down the ridges lightly, plunged 
Among the bulrush beds, and clutched the sword 
And strongly wheeled and threw it. 

7. Thou art weighed in the balance, and art found want¬ 
ing. 

8. Thy kingdom is divided, and is given to the Medes and 
Persians. 

9. The men would not work in the mine nor let others take 
their places. 

10. He should either attend to his duties faithfully or resign 
from the office. 

11. He has recovered from the accident, yet limps badly. 

12. John hit the ball, then ran with all his might. 

13. He said he was fond of reading, yet would not take the 
book. 

Exercise B 

71. Write thoughtful sentences containing com¬ 
pound predicates on the following subjects: 


THE PREDICATE 


41 


1. The milkman. 

2. The study of Latin. 

3. The game of chess. 

4. Julius Caesar. 

5. A climbing rose. 

6. A new book. 

7. My friend. 


8. An old apple tree. 

9. My canoe. 

10. The robin. 

11. A telephone. 

12. A circus parade. 

13. The squirrel. 

14. A St. Bernard dog. 


72. Transforming Compound Predicates.—Some¬ 
times one of the verbs of a compound predicate might 
as well or better be made a modifier of the other or of 
some other part of the sentence; thus: 

( We stood and watched the procession. 

\ We stood watching the procession, 
r The optic nerve passes from the brain to the back of 
j the head and spreads out. 

I The optic nerve passes from the brain to the back of 
^ the head, where it spreads out. 
j We strive to be better and often mar what is well. 

( Striving to be better, we often mar what is well. 



Exercise 

73. Change one of the verbs in the following sen¬ 
tences into a modifier, and explain whether or not the 
sentence is improved: 

1. He stubbed his toe against a stone and fell headlong. 

2. They remained a while in gloomy silence, and then left 
the room together. 

3. A figure entered at the door and threw a shadow across 
the stranger. 

4. The ladies of Cranford know all of each other’s proceed¬ 
ings, but they are exceedingly indifferent to each other’s opin¬ 


ions. 


42 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


5. Maggie was rather awe-stricken by this unusual treat¬ 
ment, and sometimes thought that her conduct had been too 
wicked to be alluded to. 

6. The current of the Gulf Stream is more rapid than the 
Mississippi or the Amazon, and its volume more than a thou¬ 
sand times greater. 

7. He finished his dinner and went back to his work. 

8. So spake he, and they all kept silence and were still. 

9. Huge knots of seaweed hung upon the pointed and jag¬ 
ged stones, and trembled with every breath of wind. 

10. The river reflected the clear blue of the sky and glistened 
and sparkled as it flowed noiselessly on. 

11. My judgment approves the measure, and my whole 
heart is in it. 

12. A tart temper never mellows with age, and a sharp tongue 
is the only instrument that grows keener with constant use. 

13. He entered the amphitheater and new objects of wonder 
presented themselves. 

14. He is very much interested in his work and will be sure 
to succeed. 

74. Verbs of Complete Predication.—If we examine 
a number of verbs we shall find that the action ex¬ 
pressed by some of them ends with the subject. The 
action does not pass on and affect some other thing or 
result in any other thing. The verb, in other words, 
completes a statement. Modifiers, if there are any, 
could be omitted. Such verbs are called verbs of com¬ 
plete predication. 

Examples 

1. Children play. 

2. The children are playing in the barn. 


THE PREDICATE 


43 


Exercise A 

75. Point out the verbs of complete predication in 
the following sentences: 

1. The brook flows through my grounds. 

2. Nature smiles this bright May morning. 

3. Several minutes elapsed before the smoke cleared away. 

4. The Sun came up upon the left, 

Out of the sea came he. 

5. The Sun now rose upon the right. 

6. And the good south wind blew behind. 

7. As He died to make men holy, let us die to make men 
free. 

8. Within a month Emerson’s health failed, and he was 
obliged to give up his studies. 

9. He has gone to his old home. 

10. She was looking out across the sea. 

11. The moping owl doth to the moon complain. 

12. The next moment three dark objects darted out from 
the island and came straight toward us. 

13. “Run! run for your life,” shouted Lewey. 

14. She laughed merrily when we rushed into the room. 

15. The rainbow comes and goes, 

And lovely is the rose, 

The moon doth with delight 

Look round her when the heavens are bare. 

Exercise B 

76. Use the following verbs of complete predication 


in thoughtful sentences: 


1. come. 

7. swim. 

13. stand. 

2 . fly. 

8. sink. 

14. fall. 

3- go. 

9. live. 

15. rise. 

4. walk. 

10. happen. 

16. play. 

5. hurry. 

11. sit. 

17. look. 

6. sail. 

12. turn. 

18. shine. 


44 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


77. Verbs of Incomplete Predication.—The action 
of some verbs is not complete until it has passed over 
to or affected something else. Some verbs indicate 
simply a state of being, and they require other words 
to complete an assertion about that state. All such 
verbs are called verbs of incomplete predication. 


Examples 

1. The carpenter cut his hand. 

2. He feels ill. 

3. The house is old. 


Exercise A 

78. Select all verbs of incomplete predication in the 
following sentences, and point out the words used to 
complete their meaning: 

1. He realizes his mistake. 

2. We believe that all men were created equal. 

3. Great is truth, and mighty above all things. 

4. The curfew tolls the knell of parting day. 

5. His scepter shows the force of temporal power. 

6. Borrowing dulls the edge of husbandry. 

7. The house seems to be very new. 

8. The boy looks like his father. 

9. She appears to be well-informed. 

10. He learns to do all kinds of farm work. 

11. We consider him the best president we have had. 

12. Build thee more stately mansions, 

0 my soul. 

13. She would not let me help her. 

14. I saw him slip on the ice. 

15. Man wants but little here below. 


THE PREDICATE 


45 


Exercise B 

79. Say the most important things you can about 


the subjects given below, 
predication. 

1. My dog. 

2. A child. 

3. A parrot. 

4. A street car. 

5. An ocean-liner. 

6. Electricity. 

7. Steam. . 


using verbs of incomplete 

8. Thunder. 

9, A river. 

10. The whippoorwill. 

11. A naphtha launch. 

12. Strawberries. 

13. An automobile. 

14. A horse. 


CHAPTER IV 


Modifiers of the Verb 

80. The Function of Verb Modifiers.—Many verbs 
are vague or general in their meaning. They lack the 
power to convey a clear or an exact idea of the thing 
predicated of the subject. They need other words to 
make their meaning more definite. Often, too, we 
wish to suggest ah action as not taking place, or as 
taking place in a greatly modified form. In such cases 
we use negative adverbs or qualifying adverbs or ad¬ 
verb equivalents. The function, therefore, of modi¬ 
fiers of the verb is to render more exact or definite, to 
negative, or to alter the meaning of the verb. 

Examples 

1. The procession is moving. 

2. The procession is moving slowly. 

3. The procession is not moving. 

4. The procession is moving with solemn pace. 

5. The procession is moving as if it were a funeral instead of 
a triumph. 

6. The procession is waiting to receive orders. 

Exercise 

81. Explain as nearly as you can just how each verb 
modifier in the following sentences affects the mean¬ 
ing of the verb modified: 

46 


MODIFIERS OF THE VERB 


47 


1. He ste'ppecLforth briskly. 

2. He stepped forth into the open highway. 

3. He stepped out to see who was coming. 

4. He did not step out into the open. 

5. He stepped out as though he were afraid of no one. 

6. Silently one by one in the infinite meadows of heaven, 
Blossomed the lovely stars. 

7. The mist crept slowly up the valley as the sun went down. 

8. And slowly answered Arthur from the barge. 

9. The antlered monarch of the waste 
Sprang from his heathery couch in haste. 

10. He had seen the matter in the wrong light yesterday. 

11. Everyone breakfasted at a different hour in the Red 
House, and the Squire was always the latest, giving a long 
chance to a rather feeble morning appetite before he tried it. 

12. He ran to see what it was. 

13. In utter amazement, Silas fell on his knees and bent 
his head low to examine the marvel. 

14. He sank into his chair powerless. 

15. The thoughts were strange to him now; like old friend¬ 
ship, impossible to revive. 

16. He had plenty to do during the next hour. 

17. As the child’s mind was growing into knowledge, 
Silas’s mind was growing into memory. 

82. The Adverb as Verb Modifier.—The simplest 
form of verb modifier is the adverb. It restricts, 
broadens, or describes the meaning of the verb. Ad¬ 
verbs usually tell (1) the time, (2) the place, (3) the 
manner, (4) the degree, or (5) the cause of the action 
of the verb; or (6) they may tell whether the action 
is stated as positive, negative, probable, or possible. 

Examples 

1. The telegram came yesterday (time). 

2. They have not been seen there (place). 


48 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


3. He speaks distinctly (manner). 

4. We walk much (degree). 

5. Therefore I came (cause). 

^ They are not to be found. 

6. ■< Perhaps they will be here. 

( They can surely be relied upon. 


Exercise A 

83. Point out each adverb that modifies a verb in 
the following sentences and explain the particular 
function of each: 

1. They rose cautiously to their feet and fired directly into 
the enemy’s lines. 

2. They toil not, neither do they spin. 

3. He can scarcely control his feelings. 

4. He thought fondly of the guineas that were only half 
earned. 

5. Long ago the heap of coins had become too large for the 
iron pot to hold them. 

. 6. A life spent worthily should be measured by a noble line, 
by deeds not years. 

7. Do not speak so disrespectfully. ' 

8. Flow gently, sweet Afton, among thy green braes. 

9. His conversation is perfectly delightful. 

10. Bonaparte’s star trembled in the zenith, now blazing 
out in its ancient splendor, now suddenly paling before his 
anxious eye. 

11. Day after day the general studied the position of the 
enemy; seemingly every avenue of approach was reconnoitered. 

12. We are all agreed about Samuel Adams to-day. 

13. A little farther away is the statue of William Lloyd 
Garrison. 

14. Still we do not think that the blame of Burns’s failure 
lies chiefly with the world. 


MODIFIERS OF THE VERB 


49 

15. For the world treated him more kindly than it usually 
treats such men. 

16. Every dwelling was distinctly visible. 

17. The village was completely shut in by the hills, and looked 
as if it rested peacefully in the hollow of the great had'd of 
Providence. 

18. There was never yet philosopher that could endure 
the toothache patiently. 

19. Life has passed with me but roughly since I saw thee last. 

20. We walked along while bright and red uprose the morn¬ 
ing sun. 

Exercise B 

84. Supply appropriate adverbs in accordance with 
the suggestions in parentheses in the following sen¬ 
tences, and explain the particular function of each ad¬ 
verb supplied: 

1. He snapped his fingers — 1 — at the disappearing figure 
(manner). 

2. -we heard the sound of voices (time). 

3. -it is true (positive assertion). 

4. The inhabitants of the two countries deal with each 

other -(degree). 

5. The boy walked-into the house (manner). 

6. He will go-(time). 

7. The package, however, was not-(place). 

8. 'He fell-to the ground (manner). 

9. He was-late at school (degree). 

10. -, I am very sure he went (affirmation). 

11. I have not yet decided, but-1 may go (uncertainty). 

12. Why did you not come-(time)? 

13. The child is-shy (degree). 

14. The ship sailed-(place). 

15. The flower blooms-(time). 

16. You will-be sick (emphasis). 


5° 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


85. The Prepositional Phrase as Verb Modifier. 

As modifier, the prepositional phrase bears the same 
relation to the verb that the adverb bears. It is, 
however, capable of expressing a greater variety of 
ideas. The phrase, therefore, may often be used with 
better rhetorical effect than the adverb. In addition 
to the uses of the simple adverb, the phrase denotes 
(1) agency , the person by whom a thing is done; (2) 
instrument or means , the object by aid of which the 
action is accomplished; and (3) accompaniment , that 
by which an action is accompanied or attended. 

Examples 

1. This poem was written by Milton (agency). 

2. They lifted the stone to its place with a derrick (instru¬ 
ment). 

3. The storm broke with thunder and lightning (accompani¬ 
ment). 

Exercise A 

86. Point out the phrase modifiers of the verb in 
the following sentences, and explain the particular 
function of each: 

1. A large part of the city was destroyed by fire. 

2. The earthquake was attended by fire and destruction. 

3. They traveled throughout Europe with us. 

4. The army breaks camp in the morning. 

5. Emerson always expressed his thoughts in a pleasant 
way. 

6. His reasons are as two grains of wheat hid in two bushels 
of chaff. 

7. They sat beneath the shade. 

8. And what is the shore where I stood to see my boat 
sail down the West? 


MODIFIERS OF THE VERB 


5 1 


9. We were the first that ever burst into that silent sea. 

10. By the craggy hillside, 

Through the mosses bare, 

They have planted trees 
For pleasure here and there. 

11. The long light shakes across the lakes and the wild 
cataract leaps in glory. 

12. Come and trip it as you go, on the light fantastic toe. 

13. Miss Hepzibah Pyncheon sat in the oaken elbow chair, 
with her hands over her face. 

14. Without giving herself time for a second thought, she 
rushed into the shop. 

15. Coming freshly, as he did, out of the morning light, he 
seemed to have brought some of its cheery influence into the 
shop along with him. 

16. In the front gable under the impending brow of the 
second story, was a shop door. 

17. Behind the house there appeared to be a garden. 

18. On every side, the seven gables pointed sharply towards 
the sky. 

19. The sun now rose upon the right, 

Out of the sea came he, 

Still hid in mist, and on the left, 

Went down into the sea. 

20. About the same time arrived Cedric and Saxon, with 
the lady. 

Exercise B 

87. Write a thoughtful, well worded sentence, on 
the subjects given below, in which you use at least one 
adverbial phrase; and explain the function of each. 

1. The moving of an old house. 

2. The clearing away of a brush patch. 

3. The first day of spring. 

4. My grandfather’s garden. 

5. A trip to the hills. 


5 2 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


6. Valentine’s Day. 

7. The animal I like best. 

8. Exercise for boys. 

9. The last election. 

10. Our daily paper. 

11. A boy’s education. 

12. The game of golf. 

13. Rainfall and vegetation. 

14. The making of maple syrup.. 

15. Amusements in our town. 

16. The honey bee. 

88 . The Infinitive as Verb Modifier.—The infinitive 

is commonly used as verb modifier to express purpose. 
It almost invariably answers the question why. Most 
infinitives of this class can, therefore, be transformed 
into clauses of cause. 


Exercise 

89. Designate the infinitive modifiers of verbs in the 
following sentences: 

1. He hurried away to see what it was. 

2. He longed to see the towers of his native city once more. 

3. He was grieved to hear of the accident. 

4. We eat to live. 

5. He fought to save his country. 

6. They wrote to invite their friends. 

7. She is going to Boston to see her sister. 

8. He remained to hear the story. 

9. She sang to keep up her spirits. 

10. Knowledge exists to be imparted. 

11. They have traveled many a mile, to tread a measure 
with you on this grass. 

12. And fools who came to scoff, remained to pray. 


MODIFIERS OF THE VERB 


53 


90. The Clause as Verb Modifier.—Many explan¬ 
ations or limitations that need to be given in con¬ 
nection with the assertions contained in verbs cannot 
be expressed by an adverb or a prepositional phrase. 
Sometimes we wish to define the time or place of one 
action by stating that it was going on at the same time 
or place as another action. Sometimes things happen 
if or although something else takes place. Again a 
person may do one thing so that he may be able to do 
another. To express these larger ideas, clauses are 
necessary. 

The clause expresses ideas with greater exactness 
ordinarily than the phrase or simple adverb, because 
it shows more clearly the true relation between the 
verb and the modifier. 


Examples 

1. I must go as soon as the carriage is ready (time). 

2. We are standing where the battle was fought (place). 

3. He performed as though he were mad (manner). 

4. He failed in his purpose because he was not persistent 
enough (cause). 

5. They set out early so that they might miss none of the ad¬ 
dress (purpose). 

6. He had worked so faithfully that they decided to reward 
him (result). 

7. If he fail us , we are lost (condition). 

8. Though he slay me , yet will I trust Him (concession). 

Exercise 

91. Point out the clause modifiers of verbs in the 
following sentences, and explain the particular func¬ 
tion of each: 


54 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


1. Rich gifts wax poor when givers prove unkind. 

2. Oh what a tangled web we weave 
When first we practice to deceive! 

3. Better one bird in hand than ten in the wood. 

4. Experience keeps a dear school, but fools will learn in 
no other. 

5. We are happy now, because God wills it. 

6. He moved away from the city because his health was 
failing. 

7. The little birds sang as if it were 
The one day of summer in all the year. 

8. The fields and hills lay turned to the sky, as if every 
leaf and blade of grass were nerves bared to the touch of the 
sun. 

9. And if they once may win the bridge, 

What hope to save the town? 

10. And if the breeze kept the good news back 
For other couriers we should not lack. 

11. So teach us to number our days, that we may apply our 
hearts unto wisdom. 

12. Mend your speech a little 
Lest it mar your fortunes. 

13. Though much I want that most would have, 

Yet still my mind forbids to crave. 

14. We hope to make the trip in an hour, although the roads 
are bad. 

15. I know a bank whereon the wild thyme blows. 

16. The wind bloweth where it listeth. 

Exercise 

92. By inserting appropriate clause modifiers of the 
verb in the blank spaces, make thoughtfully worded 
sentences of the following: 

1. Although-, I could not help admiring the fellow. 

2. Better not to be than-. 


MODIFIERS OF THE VERB 


55 


3. We hope his health will improve-. 

4. You should know better than to do that-. 

5. She was very young-. 

6. He was shivering with cold-. 

7. The little bird was unable to fly-. 

8. My dog learned those tricks-. 

9. My aunt brought me this picture-. 

10. A true friend will not fail us-. 

11. He could not go with us-. 

12. He had studied so hard-. 

13. They are out in their new car-. 

14. He will be able to buy the house-. 

15. -yet every one was there. 

16. -beggars would ride. 

93. Rhetorical Value of Phrases and Clauses.—We 

can give only a very general rule about the compar¬ 
ative value of clauses and phrases. Clauses often can 
express meaning more definitely; but phrases,because 
they are short, are sometimes more emphatic, and 
usually more simple. 


Exercise A 

94. Very often a sentence can be materially im¬ 
proved by transforming a prepositional or an infinitive 
phrase into a clause. Make such changes in the follow¬ 
ing sentences, and explain whether or not the sentences 
are improved: 

1. I doubt as to your success. 

2. They rejoiced at his coining. 

3. The physician was delayed because of a summons to the 
hospital. 

4. He desires to settle the matter at once. 

5. The fellow acted in a crazy manner. 


56 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


6. Upon his departure , the gathering broke up. 

7. The battle of Long Island was fought on the ground 
beneath our feet. 

8. I am pleased at your doing so well. 

9. The boys sold the canoe when starting for the mountains. 

10. I wished very much to go abroad. 

11. They were delighted over the success of their venture. 

12. On reaching the church-porch, we found the parson re¬ 
buking the grayheaded sexton for having used mistletoe among 
the greens with which the church was decorated. 

13. The old house looks to be vacant. 

14. When going home from school John found the purse. 

15. On his failure to appear at the appointed time , the com¬ 
mittee went in search of him. 

Exercise C 

95. Very often sentences may be materially im¬ 
proved by changing clauses to prepositional phrases 
or to infinitives. Transform the italicized clauses in 
the following sentences into phrases, and explain the 
value of the change: 

1. He was reproved because he had done as he did (for having 
done, etc.). 

2. When they arrive , we can start at once. 

3. They were praised, as they had behaved well. 

4. They started when they heard the sound of his voice. 

5. Will had been sent to town that he might buy some cloth. 

6. The signal will be given, when the clock strikes midnight. 

7. She has come to New York that she may study music. 

8 . We blamed him because he did not do the work. 

9. We were so glad that we saw him. 

10. They fled when they heard the sound of approaching feet. 

11. He was sorry that he had to leave so soon. 

12. When the mail comes in, all the village loafers flock to 
the post office. 


MODIFIERS OF THE VERB 


57 


13. As we approached the village, we met a number of people. 

14. The man was very grateful that he had a chance to wo>rk. 

15. It was necessary to halt for two days, that the army might 
collect food. 

96. Position of Verb Modifiers.—In general mod¬ 
ifiers of verbs should be placed near the verbs; but for 
the sake of emphasis a phrase or clause may be placed 
at the beginning of the sentence. The placing of mod¬ 
ifiers in wrong positions often results in awkward sen¬ 
tences with doubtful meaning. 


Examples 


1. 1 


Bad: We watched the moon until it disappeared with a 
telescope. 

Good: With a telescope we watched the moon until it 
disappeared. 

Bad: We spent a large part of the day, not finding the 
wind favorable, in waiting. 

Good: Not finding the wind favorable, we spent a large 
part of the day in waiting. 


Exercise A 

97. The meaning in the following sentences is not 
clear (that is, is ambiguous), because verb modifiers 
are misplaced. Make such changes as are necessary 
for clearness. 

1. Robin entered the edge of the wood to see Arthur 
presently. 

2. He broke a twig which abruptly caused the stranger to 

turn. 

3. He spoke slowly circling around the other. 

4. At once he desires that the matter be settled. 


5« 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


5. If I go now, he will think me afraid, while he acts thus. 

6. Several people died in the town of fever. 

7. I have only written two letters. 

8. He found that he was mistaken afterward. 

9. The coach was crowded with tired and hungry passengers, 
both inside and out. 

10. Unluckily there was a blunder, that spoiled all the rest 
of the work at the very outset. 

11. The smith pauses as the vehicle whirls by, with the 
horse's heel in his lap. 

12. He withdrew from the meeting of the committee highly 
incensed. 

13. The man walked along the hot and dusty road with 
slow and faltering steps. 

14. So correct is his ear that he can reproduce an air after 
once hearing it with the most perfect exactness. 

15. The sun was shining after the storm with unusual 
brightness. 


Exercise B 

98. For the sake of emphasis or greater naturalness, 
place the italicized expressions in better positions: 

1. The merchant readily undertook to deliver on a certain 
day the suits of Lincoln Green. 

2. Robin saw his chance finally and brought down his arm 
with a blow that would have felled an ox. 

3. He withdrew from the chamber, highly incensed. 

• 4. If we will but look for it, beauty is everywhere. 

5. Master Simon stood up in the pew and repeated the re¬ 
sponses very audibly, during the sermon. 

6. I saw on one side the light of a rousing kitchen-fire beam¬ 
ing through a window, as we drove into the great gateway of the 
inn. 

7. The chaise drove up to the door, and I was on my way 
to the family mansion of the Bracebridges in a few minutes. 


MODIFIERS OF THE VERB 


59 


8. He used to come every day from his father’s residence 
at Melrose, and took his meals at Abbotsford, occasionally. 

g. He was even the companion and playmate of the larger 
boys, when school-hours were over. 

10. Rip lay musing on this scene for some time. 

11. He heard a voice from a distance as he was about to 
descend. 

12. They, the true hearted, came, not as the conquerer comes. 

13. I am too tired to-night to do any more. 

14. That ye be not judged, judge not. 

15. Better than no bread is half a loaf. 


CHAPTER V 


The Complement 

gg. The Function of the Complement.—All verbs 
of incomplete predication require the help of a word 
or of words to make a finished statement. It became , 
He made , This is, are not complete statements. If we 
supply stormy after the first verb; and a box after the 
other two, we shall have complete thoughts. It is the 
function, then, of the complement to bring to comple¬ 
tion the meaning of the verb. 

Examples 

1. This is the President. 

2. The sun lights the earth. 

3. The season is dry. 

4. Several poor boys have become President. 

5. He was chosen leader. 

6 . They chose him leader. 

100. The Subjective Complement.—Some of the 
words used to complete the predication of verbs, refer 
back to the subject or modify its meaning. They usu¬ 
ally state some attribute of the subject; and are, there¬ 
fore, often called attribute complements. The term 
subjective complement seems preferable, because we 
shall find complements that give attributes of the ob¬ 
ject, and we wish to distinguish between the two kinds. 


THE COMPLEMENT 


6l 


Examples 


1. Victoria became queen at an early age. 

2. Many soldiers are ill. 


Exercise A 


ioi. Point out the subjective complements in the 
following sentences, and explain the particular func¬ 
tion of each : 

1. His health was poor. 

2. An adjective may become a noun. 

3. Fame is the fragrance of heroic deeds. 

4. King Alfred was a noble man and a just king. 

5. He was appointed secretary of the society. 

6. His ideas of trade are noble and generous. 

7. Laughter is the chorus of conversation. 

8. It seems wrong. 

9. A friend may well be reckoned a masterpiece of nature. 

10. John remained quiet. 

11. The child appeared grateful. 

12. The room grows dark. 


Exercise B 


102. State an important idea about each of the fol¬ 
lowing things, giving an attribute of the subject in 
each case: 


1. A bobolink. 

2. The wireless telephone. 

3. Soldierly heroism. 

4. The first spring buds. 

5. An industrious boy. 

6. A faithful dog. 

7. A fishing trip. 


8. My first playmate. 

9. A knight. 

10. Animals of the north. 

11. Our national songs. 

12. A walk in the country. 

13. Whittier. 

14. Clouds just before a storm. 


62 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


103. The Object Complement.—Many verbs denote 
that the subject is acting upon some object; and the 
action expressed by the verb is not complete until it 
has been received by that object. The word repre¬ 
sented as receiving the action of the verb is called the 
object complement. 

Examples 

1. They erected a magnificent building. 

2. Irving visited the house in which Shakespeare was born. 


Exercise A 

104. Point out all the nouns that receive the action 
of verbs in the following sentences: 

1. They dug their heels into the ground to keep from 
slipping. 

2. I have'but ten silver pennies. 

3. Four hundred shillings he counted out. 

4. An old tattered cloak over his hunter’s garb completed 
his make-up. 

5. One afternoon we visited a cave down the stream. 

6. Each mind has its own methods. 

7. Having gained the summit, they seated themselves at 
the foot of a tree. 

8. Great trees sheltered the modest little house. 

9. We soon reached a level amphitheater. 

10. The Old Manse we had almost forgotten. 

11. The old man wore a glazed hat and an ancient cloak. 

12. Even the trees in the forest and the stream in the 
meadows taught him lessons about nature. 

13. Burns, the poet, had a tender heart and a ready sym¬ 
pathy. 

14. He communicated his plan of attack to his officers and 
formed his little troop into three divisions. 


THE COMPLEMENT 63 

15. Shakespeare spent the last few years of his life at Strat- 
ford-on-Avon. 

Exercise B 

105. By adding to the sentences below, express a 
thought that is worth while. Point out the object 
complement in each sentence. 

1. I never beheld-. 

2. The United States exports-. 

3. Washington crossed-. 

4. King Richard won-. 

5. Elias Howe invented-. 

6. He spent his-in study. 

7. He had played-. 

8. The snow had covered-. 

9. Lowell wrote-. 

10. The boy fed the-. 

11. The storm entirely destroyed-. 

12. We must respect the-. 

13. He taught-. 

14. The two friends began-. 

15. Raphael painted-. 

16. At the end of the lane, we saw-. 

17. The rays of the bright morning sun made-. 

106. The Objective Complement. —Some verbs re¬ 
quire two complements to fill out their meaning. The 
first complement in such cases is the object. The sec¬ 
ond Usually expresses the effect, or result, of the action 
of the verb on the object. It gives an attribute of the 
object as it is after it has been acted upon by the sub¬ 
ject. This is called the objective complement. 

Examples 

1. They chose him king. 

2. This turn of events renders us useless. 


64 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


Exercise 

107. Point out the objective complements in the 
following sentences, and explain what each tells about 
the object complement: 

1. We made the boxes large intentionally. 

2. They deemed it wise to depart at once. 

3. The king dubbed him knight. 

4. The people called him the Father of his country. 

5. She considered the problem too difficult. 

6. They made him go. 

7. We heard the wind moaning without. 

8. Amazement held them dumb. 

9. They saw him coming at full speed. 

10. Let them choose whom they want. 

11. The people chose Mr. Thomas auditor. 

12. They regarded him as qualified. 

13. Proud of his birth and nationality Henry desired to 
prove himself worthy of them. 

14. He proved her answer wrong. 

15. They painted the house white. 

Exercise B 

108. The sentences below contain subjective com¬ 
plements. Change the verbs into the active voice, and 
explain the nature of the complements you have as a 
result. 

1. Washington was made commander-in-chief of the army 
by Congress. 

2. The movement was not deemed wise by his advisors. 

3. The shutters were painted green by Henry. 

4. By many he was not considered worthy of the honor. 

5. Scott was made a baronet by the King. 


THE COMPLEMENT 


65 


6. The box was planed smooth by the carpenter. 

7. The ocean cannot be pumped dry by anyone. 

8. The feelings are rendered blunt and callous by custom. 

9. He is thought humble by many; but by others he is ac¬ 
counted proud. 

10. He was rendered blind by the throwing of a crumb of 
bread. 

11. The stone was polished bright by the mason. 

12. The cream was beaten light by Mary. 

13. The floor had been scrubbed white by someone. 

14. He will be elected senator by the legislature. 

15. The law.was pronounced unconstitutional by the higher 
courts. 

109. The Noun as Complement.—In the preceding 
exercises we have seen that the noun may serve as sub¬ 
jective complement, object complement, or objective 
complement. It tells what the subject is, what the 
subject acts upon, or what the result of the action of 
the subject upon something is. 

no. The Pronoun as Complement.—The pronoun 
frequently serves as subjective complement or as ob¬ 
ject complement, but cannot often be an objective 
complement. 


Exercise 

iii. Point out the complements in the sentences 
below, tell what kind they are, and explain whether 
they are adjectives or nouns. 

1. The flower smells sweet. 

2. The guests were made welcome. 

3. The President appointed him collector. 

4. The mother advised her son to return. 

5. They chose him captain of the team. 


66 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


6. They christened him James. 

7. The plowman homeward plods his weary way. 

8. We must take the current when it serves, 

Or lose our ventures. 

9. The little brook heard it and built a roof 
’Neath which he could house him winterproof. 

10. I dare do all that may become a man; 

Who dares do more is none. 

11. And they, my knights, who loved me once, the stroke 
That strikes them dead is as my death to me. 

12. Sadly his face he averted, and strode up and down, and 
was thoughtful. 

13. There was never a heart more good or kind. 

14. Slender and clear were his crystal spars 
As the lashes of light that dim the stars. 

15. King Arthur and his knights performed wonderful deeds 
of valor. 

16. They heard the soldiers shouting on the battle field. 

17. The men lifted their canoes from the water. 

18. The enemy discharged several thousand arrows. 

19. He told his story to every stranger. 

20. He was considered strongest. 

21. And this our life, exempt from public haunt, 

Finds tongues in trees, books in the running brooks, 
Sermons in stones, and good in everything. 

112. The Phrase as Complement.—Prepositional 
phrases sometimes are the equivalents of nouns, and 
often the equivalents of adjectives. As either they 
may serve as complements to the verb. 

Examples 

1. Out of sight is out of mind. 

2. He is in poor health. 

3. They all are of one opinion. 

4. He was chosen for secretary. 


THE COMPLEMENT 


67 


Exercise A 

113. Point out the phrases that are used as com¬ 
plements in the following sentences, and tell what 
kind of complement each is: 

1. The daughter of the prince tasted of the food. 

2. Henry was beside himself during the whole day. 

3. Out of fashion is out of the world. 

4. He seemed in a great hurry. 

5. The book is of little use to me. 

6. He was well stricken in years. 

7. He seemed in perfect health. 

8. He appeared in great distress. 

9. He talked of the work constantly. 

10. It tastes of sugar. 

11. He was appointed to the secretaryship. 

12. He was of great importance in the village. 

13. Her dress is commonly of some bright door. 

14. Everybody was in good looks and in good spirits. 

15. Her disposition is of a peculiar kind. 

Exercise B 

114. Change the italicized complements in the fol¬ 
lowing sentences into phrase complements: 

1. Marguerite was ill (in poor health). 

2. He was chosen representative from his district. 

3. The fellow was uncontrollable. 

4. He seemed hurried. 

5. The man’s face was expressionless. 

6. It was not valueless. 

7. The view seemed dreamlike. 

8. The plant seemed lifeless. 

9. He was appointed ruler. 


68 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


10. The bird is a peculiar kind. 

11. The account was uninteresting. 

12. He appeared middle aged. 

13. He was not generous. 

14. The matter seemed unimportant. 

115. The Infinitive and the Participle as Comple¬ 
ments.—The infinitive, either present or perfect, may 
become a noun, and serve as complement, just as it 
serves as subject. The same is true of the participle. 
It is sometimes called the participial noun; sometimes, 
the gerund; and sometimes the infinitive in ing. 

Examples 

1. To see is to believe. 

2. He wished to set out at once. 

3. Seeing is believing. 

4. He advocated departing at once. 

Exercise A 

116. Point out all the participles and infinitives that 
serve as complements in the following: 

1. He learned to speak French very quickly. 

2. He sought to take refuge from the noise. 

3. They elected him to be ruler of the land. 

4. I hoped to hear her sing. 

5. The bell ceased to toll, and a profound silence reigned 
through the dusky hall. 

6. I heard the ripple washing in the reeds, 

And the wild water lapping on the crag. 

7. Our doubts are traitors 

And make us lose the good we oft might win. 

By fearing to attempt. 

8. I bade thee, watch, and lightly bring me word. 


THE COMPLEMENT 


69 


9. I see the lights of the village 

Gleam through the rain and the mist. 

10. America expects every man to do his duty. 

11. She tried to console her distressed sister. 

12. He intended to return before dusk. 

13. The place seemed built for quiet study and profound 
meditation. 

14. I hear the wind among the trees, 

Playing celestial symphonies. 

15. Their plan was to take a trip through the west. 

16. They stood watching the procession. 

17. The sparrows could be heard chirping. 

18. The new sun rose bringing the new year. 

Exercise B 

117. Infinitives may be changed to participles, par¬ 
ticiples to infinitives, and either to clauses with good 
effect. Change the italicized complements to some 
other form, in the following sentences: 

1. To attempt is not to succeed. 

2. Attaining is not necessarily succeeding. 

3. Washington decided that he would cross the Delaware. 

4. They swore to reverence the king as if he were their con¬ 
science. 

5. The father hopes that he will reach there in time. 

6 . The boy likes driving. 

7. We could hear the wind whistling. 

8. He decided to devote his time to literary work. 

9. One of his greatest pleasures was to roam about the old, 
historic town. 

10. He liked to read and was seldom seen without a book in 
his hand. 

11. They seemed hunting about for something. 

12. Life is not remaining what ope is. 

13. The train for the city was soon to be leaving. 


7o 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


14. He began visiting the scenes which he was describing, 
and searching in the libraries, for old letters and documents. 

118. The Clause as Complement.—We have seen 
that the clause often serves as subject of the sentence. 
It may also serve as any of the three kinds of comple¬ 
ments. As complement the clause almost invariably 
takes the place of a noun. 

Examples 

1. We could not hear what he said. 

2. That is what he described. 

3. They made him what he wanted to be. 

Exercise A 

119. Point out the clauses that serve as comple¬ 
ments in the following sentences, and explain what 
kind of complement each is: 

1. I fancied I saw cheerfulness in every countenance 
throughout the journey. 

2. Tell us how much you have accomplished. 

3. He refused to tell what it was. 

4. “Let me make the songs of a people,” said Fletcher, 
“and you shall make its laws.” 

5. They paid him what he had earned. 

6. He explained why he was late. 

7. The boy inquired which was the way to St. Ann’s Lane. 

8. Macaulay tells us that he owed the happiest hours of 
his life to books. 

9. We know that Shakespeare was fond of the woods and 
the fields, for his plays are filled with charming descriptions of 
their beauty. 

10. He liked to imagine that fairies dwelt in the Arden 
woods. 


THE COMPLEMENT 


71 

11. Then saw they how there hove a dusky barge beneath 
them. 

12. He was told that they would soon come. 

13. They were made what they were by their own willfulness. 

14. The decision was that he should not be allowed to go. 

15. The law of nature is, Do the thing and you shall have 
the power. 

16. He? never wished to do what he was told. 

Exercise B 

120. By supplying clause complements, complete 
the following sentences, and tell what kind of comple¬ 
ment is supplied in each case: 

1. Harry painted the things whatever color he wished. 

2. He did not know-. 

3. Things are not always-. 

4. I think-. 

5. Careless habits have made him-. 

6. He longed to do-. 

7. The gentlemen of the party saw-. 

8. The hunter caught-. 

9. His wish was-. 

10. The governor decided-. 

11. They could not tell-. 

12. In furnishing the house they chose-. 


CHAPTER VI 


Modifiers of the Complement 

12 i. The Function of Complement Modifiers.—- 

Sometimes the object complement is indefinite or gen¬ 
eral in its meaning. A subjective complement or an 
objective complement may be general in its applica¬ 
tion to the subject or object of the verb. Modifiers 
are, therefore, needed to make the application more 
definite. Accordingly, it is the function of the com¬ 
plement modifiers to point out or describe with greater 
definiteness the thing denoted by the complement. 

122. Modifiers of the Noun Complement.—The 
modifiers of the noun or pronoun complement are the 
same as the modifiers of the noun subject. They are 
the adjective, the prepositional phrase, the clause, the 
infinitive, the participle, and the appositive. 

Examples 

i . His sleeping place was a beautiful grove. 

2. His sleeping place was a grove on Mount Latmus. 

3. His sleeping place was a grove, in which was a lake. 

4. His sleeping place was a grove, standing on a mountain¬ 
side. 

5. His sleeping place was a grove, a favorite haunt of Diana. 

6. His sleeping place was a remote grove, to be enjoyed by few. 

7. He chose a grove for his sleeping place. 

72 


MODIFIERS OF THE COMPLEMENT 


73 


Exercise A 

123. Explain the nature of each complement mod¬ 
ifier in the following sentences: 

1. Socrates was a Greek philosopher. 

2. The building is the highest in the city. 

3. He was a man of whom everyone spoke well. 

4. The place was the old home which he had always loved. 

5. They have a beautiful home of their own. 

6. She sang the old songs we loved. 

7. We saw before us a quaint old mansion, the birthplace 
of Henry Clay. 

8. I consider her the queen of them all. 

9. Kindness is the golden chain by which society is bound 
together. 

10. He who ascends to mountain tops shall find 

The loftiest peaks most wrapped in clouds and snow. 

11. Will you bring me the book you have been reading? 

12. He told many strange stories, experiences he had had at 
sea. 

13. Tom broke the plate glass window of the drug store. 

14. He was my friend, faithful and just to me. 

15. They found the time too short for the work. 

16. His home was an old colonial mansion standing far 
back from the street. 


Exercise B 

124. Sometimes a sentence can be improved by sub¬ 
stituting one kind of complement modifier for another. 
Change the italicized modifiers in the following sen¬ 
tences into some other kind: 

Thus: He built a fine cottage which stood on the shore of the 
lake. 

Better: He built a fine cottage on the shore of the lake. 


74 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


1. Apollo was a god, unable to die. 

2. His blood stained the ground, which became purple. 

3. One evening we visited another community of red ants. 

4. Dr. Holmes was a small man who had a smiling, genial 
face. 

5. There he met Jonathan Swift, a very able man, but of a 
very unhappy disposition. 

6 . We saw the green lawns stretching on left and right, fresh 
with the life of June. 

7. The commandant received the ambassador from the 
French very courteously. 

8. With the appearance of daylight they pursued their 
journey which led them along the banks of a rushing river. 

9. They accomplished a revolution, perhaps the greatest 
in the annals of history. 

10. It was a rich and elegant structure, lighted from the dome. 

11. Brusa is a very long straggling place, extending for three 
or four miles along the side of the mountain. 

12. The parson said grace, a long courtly well-worded one of 
the ancient school. 

13. He asked James, an old friend, to go with him. 

14. He heard every goblin-tale of the neighboring gossip with 
infinite gravity. 

15. In the center of the great city of London lies a small 
neighborhood, consisting of a cluster of narrow streets and courts. 

16. The whole establishment had a quiet and secluded air. 

125. The Modifiers of Adjective Complements.— 

The modifiers of the adjective complement are the ad¬ 
verb, the prepositional phrase, the clause, the infin¬ 
itive, and the participle used adverbially. 

Adverb: The weather is extremely warm. 

Phrase: It is unfortunate for him. 

Clause: Herman is taller than I am. 

Infinitive: It is not easy to do. 

Participle: The day was freezing cold. 


MODIFIERS OF THE COMPLEMENT 


75 


Exercise A 


126. Supply appropriate modifiers to the adjective 
complements in the following sentences, and tell the 
kind of modifier supplied: 

Thus: The task was difficult. 

The task was difficult to perform (infinitive modifier). 

1. Again the morning was-clear. 

2. The outcome was unfortunate- 

3. The place was so delightful-. 

4. Pears are good - 1 -. 

5. It has long been considered unsafe-. 

6. The sun rose yellow-. 

7. He felt sure-. 

8. The journey is longer-. 

9. She seemed happy-. 

10. The silver was bright-. 

11. We were delighted-. 

12. The soldiers were exhausted-. 

13. The fire was-red-. 

14. He was too ill-. 

15. The lake was blue-. 

16. It was unkind-. 


Exercise B 


127. Write thoughtful sentences, containing ad¬ 
jective complements with various kinds of modifiers, 
on the following subjects: 


2. The maple tree. 

3. Making a kite. 

4. General Grant. 


1. Your home. 


5. The first signs of spring. 


6. The trees in autumn. 

7. The value of forests. 

8. Learning to skate. 

9. Games. 

10. A great battle. 


76 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


11. Our flag. 

12. Habit. 

13. An automobile. 


14. Punctuation. 

15. Electricity. 

16. A day in the country. 


128. The Modifiers of the Infinitive Complement.—- 

The modifiers of the infinitive are the same as those of 
the verb proper,—adverb, prepositional phrase, clause, 
and other infinitives. 

Adverb: He promised to work faithfully. 

Phrase: He promised to go at once. 

Clause: He promised to go if it did not rain. 

Infinitive: He wished to win simply to increase his reputation. 


Exercise A 


129. Supply modifiers to the infinitive complements 
below and tell the kind you supply: 

Thus: He tried to rule-. 

He tried to rule as a good king should (clause modi¬ 


fier). 


1. He determined to study-. 

2. He appeared to loiter-. 

3. They asked to go-. 

4. She preferred to drive-. 

5. No one dares to leave the church-. 

6. He tried to win-. 

7. They planned to meet-. 

8. He was asked to draw-. 

9. We are to have dinner-. 

10. He longed to fish-. 

11. Scott promised to write the Shepherd-. 

12. The party attempted to row-. 

13. He liked to ride and drive-. 


MODIFIERS OF THE COMPLEMENT 


77 


14. I was to make the voyage-. 

15. He wished to dwell-. 

16. They began to quarrel-. 

Exercise B 

130. Sometimes one form of modifier of the infin¬ 
itive complement can be transformed into some other 
kind with improvement to the sentence. Change the 
italicized modifiers in the following sentences: 

Thus: He strove to do his duty in a citizenlike way. 

Better : He strove to do his duty as a citizen should. 

1. The captain undertook to supply his company, so that 
they would have arms. 

2. I wished to survey the mansion on the hill yonder, when 
we could see it from a good point of vantage. 

3. We decided to visit Melrose Abbey immediately after we 
had eaten our breakfast. 

4. Everything about him seemed to rejoice that he appeared 
so happy. 

5. He promised to act with caution in the matter. 

6. He persuaded us to go before hearing from home. 

7. We urged them not to skate where the ice was unsafe. 

8. They were persuaded to remain when they did not wish to. 

9. He wished to rush where the fight was thickest. 

10. Mary desired to come upon your rival. 

131. Modifiers of Phrase and Clause Comple¬ 
ments. —The modifiers of phrase complements are al¬ 
most always modifiers of individual words in the 
phrases, usually the noun or pronoun. The modifiers 
of clause complements are likewise almost always 
modifiers of individual words in the clause. Inasmuch 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


78 

as the clause contains all the elements of the sentence 
it may contain all the modifiers of the sentence. 

Examples 

1. He got so out of breath that he could not speak. 

2. The fellow seems beyond the physician's help. 

3. He is in good health, which is a boon to anyone. 

4. He regretted what he had done so freely. 


Exercise 

132. Explain the nature of all the modifiers within 
the phrase and clause complements in the following 
sentences: 

1. The stranger appeared in great haste to get away. 

2. The inhabitants were in but little danger from the 
firing of the enemy. 

3. They felt that it was far from wise to go on. 

4. Men often fear what is beyond their powers to under¬ 
stand. 

5. His demands are out of all proportion to the injury he 
received. 

6. We decided that we would row about the lake. 

7. They had to tend the sheep together when Laidlaw was 
a boy. 

8. I do not care to contradict the story until I know that 
it is not true. 

9. He was in search of his lost brother. 

10. I sought to have a word with the quarto before I left 
the library, but he was silent. 

11. He was in good humor. 

12. He is always of easy faith in such matters and so is a 
ready believer in relics, legends, and anecdotes of goblins and 
great men. 


MODIFIERS OF THE COMPLEMENT 


79 


13. I soon found that I was wandering among noble avenues 
of oaks and elms, whose vast size bespoke the growth of 
centuries. 

14. I had hoped that I might meet the stately elbow-chair 
of carved oak, in which the country squire of former days was 
wont to sway the scepter. 

15. He did not know what was before him. 

17. He asked why you acted in such a manner. 


CHAPTER VII 


Independent Elements of the Sentence 

133. Independent Sentence Elements.—An inde¬ 
pendent element in the sentence is a part that has no 
expressed relationship with any other portion of the 
sentence. It usually modifies the thought of the sen¬ 
tence as a whole. Many independent elements, how¬ 
ever, are the equivalents of related sentence elements, 
and may very often be transformed into related parts 
with advantage to clearness. The common independ¬ 
ent elements are,— 

1. Nouns or pronouns used to name the person or thing 
addressed. 

2. Exclamations, or interjections. 

3. Conjunctive adverbs and phrases used to connect the 
thought of the sentence with that of the preceding. 

4. Infinitives used parenthetically. 

5. Participial phrases used parenthetically. 

6. Clauses used parenthetically. 

7. The case absolute. 

134. Nouns and Pronouns of Address.—In speak¬ 
ing to people in ordinary conversation, or in addressing 
them more formally, we usually call them by some 
name or by a pronoun with modifiers. In the figure 
of speech known as apostrophe , we often address ob¬ 
jects as if they were persons. All such expressions of 

80 


INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE 81 


address, whether consisting of a single word or of sev¬ 
eral, are grammatically independent of the rest of the 
sentence. 

Thus: i. Manfred , call your father at once. 

2. Mr. Speaker, I wish to answer this attack. 

3. And I have loved thee, Ocean. 

4. Pardon me, thou bleeding piece of earth. 

i 

Exercise 

135. Point out the independent nouns and pronouns 
in the following sentences, and explain whether or not 
they are figures of apostrophe: 

1. Stars, hide your fires. 

2. Give me of your balm, O Fir-Tree. 

3. Friend, whether thou be knight or knave, I ask not. 

4. O morning star that smilest in the blue, 

O star, my morning dream hath proven true. 

5. Sir, I would rather be right than president. 

6. Blessed be thou, Sir Gareth! Knight art thou 
To the King’s best wish! O damsel, be you wise 
To call him shamed, who is but overthrown? 

7. Blessings on thee, little man, 

Barefoot boy with cheek of tan! 

8. Where are you going, my pretty maid? 

9. There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio, 
Than are dreamt of in your philosophy. 

10. Thou, too, sail on, 0 ship of State. ' 

11. Friends, Romans, countrymen! lend me your ears. 

12. Turn, Fortune, turn thy wheel and lower the proud. 

136. The Punctuation of Nominatives of Address.— 

An examination of the sentences in the preceding exer¬ 
cise will show you that all expressions independent by 


82 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


address are separated from the rest of the sentence by 
commas. 

Thus: Wave your tops, ye pines , in sign of worship. 

Exercise 

137. Point out the expressions of address in the fol 

wing sentences and punctuate them properly: 

1. Roll on thou dark and deep blue ocean roll. 

2. Come listen to me you gallants so free. 

3. Ha! laugh’st thou Lochiel my vision to scorn. 

4. To speak plainly sir your manner was somewhat rude. 

5. My fairest child I have no song to give you. 

6. Be good sweet maid and let who will be clever. 

7. Give me of your bark O Birch-Tree! 

8. Take my cloak O Hiawatha! 

9. Sail on O Union strong and great! 

10. My lady sweet arise. 

11. “Horatius” quoth the Consul, 

“As thou sayest let it be.” 

12. Thanks for the heavenly message brought by thee 
Child of the wandering sea. 

13. Cromwell I charge thee, fling away ambition. 

14. Then follow me and give me audience friends. 

15. Cassius go you into the other street 
And part the numbers. 

138. Interjections.—-The interjection is a word that 
expresses sudden feeling. It bears no relation to other 
parts of the sentence; but may have modifiers of its 
own. If great stress is laid on the interjection it is fol¬ 
lowed by an exclamation point. If the force of the ex¬ 
clamation is distributed over the whole sentence, the 
interjection is followed by a comma, and the sentence 
by the exclamation point. 


INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE 83 


Thus: Hurrah! We have won, 

Alas, we are ruined! 

Alas for him who never sees 

The stars shine through his cypress trees! 

Exercise 

139. Study carefully the use and punctuation of 
interjections in the first half of the exercise below. 
From the list at the end supply appropriate interjec¬ 
tions in the blank spaces in the second half. 

1. Fie upon him! He is a traitor. 

2. Hark! Did ye not hear it? 

3. Help! I can’t hang on much longer. 

4. Oh, I am not afraid! 

5. Alas for the rarity 
Of human charity! 

6. Hurrah for the old flag! 

7. Hark! hark! the lark at Heaven’s gate sings. 

8 . Caesar, all hail! 

9. Stay, ho! and let us hear Mark Anthony. 

10. Oh! my Lord Arthur, whither shall I go? 

11. -I am ashamed to say it. 

12. -I knew he would win. 

13. -Someone is injured. 

14. -did I not tell you so. 

15. -I do not believe one word of it. 

16. -let us hear no more of the matter. 

17. -how can you act so? 

18. -the conquering hero comes. 

19. -the poor Indian whose untutored mind 

Sees God in clouds and hears Him in the wind. 

20. -the herald angels sing. 

Lo! Hush! Nonsense! 

See! Behold! Dear me! 

Come! There! Ah me! 







8 4 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


Look! For shame! O Dear! 

Hark! Indeed! Hurrah! * 

140. Conjunctive Adverbs and Phrases.—One sen¬ 
tence often depends for its meaning upon a preceding 
one. When this is the case, it is often necessary to use 
an adverbial conjunction, or a conjunctive phrase to 
indicate the relation in thought. When used in this 
way adverbs and phrases bear no grammatical rela¬ 
tion to any part of the sentence. They simply relate 
its meaning to another sentence. They are, therefore, 
independent in construction. 

Thus: 1. Washington, accordingly, threw his troops across 
the Delaware. 

2. It is, for all that, necessary for us to do our best. 


Exercise 

141. Point out the adverbs and phrases used in the 
following sentences: 

1. After that, we went to Chicago, where we stayed a week. 

2. We are not able, however, to give you a definite answer 
to-day. 

3. They will, no doubt, with reasons answer you. 

4. Away, then! come, seek the conspirators. 

5. We believe, furthermore, that the time for correcting 
such evils is now. 

6. On the other hand, I would not have you be too credu¬ 
lous. 

7. In short, I do not wish to have anything to do with the 
matter. 

8. It is, likewise, impossible for them. 

9. At the same time, I do not wish to dissuade you. 

10. So far, we have been unable to find it. 


INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE 85 

11. On the whole, it was fortunate that we kept out of the 
business. 

12. He was, moreover, a kind neighbor. 

13. In a word, Rip was ready to attend to anybody’s busi¬ 
ness but his own. 

14. The children at the village, too, would shout with joy 
whenever he approached. 

15. Up to this point, we have been entirely successful. 

16. Besides, such a course is manifestly unfair. 

142. The Punctuation of Adverbial Conjunctions.— 

Adverbs and adverb phrases used to connect are set 
off from the rest of the sentence by commas. 

Exercise 

143. From the list appended to the exercise select 
appropriate adverbs or adverbial phrases for the blank 
spaces, and insert the proper punctuation. 

1. It is-necessary for us to review. 

2. We set out-making our way through the storm as 

well as we could. 

3. -I do not trust him. 

4. -he is one of the best and kindest of men. 

5. I do not believe-that he will go. 

6. This is-a great misfortune. 

7. -he will have to go to work. 

8. -if you are really sorry, nothing will be done about it 

9. -we gathered up our things and hurried home. 

10. He has done a great deal of work outside of school-. 

11. -I have nothing more to say. 

12. -he is a person whose word can be absolutely 

relied on. 

accordingly likewise in like manner 

nevertheless besides at the same time 

however moreover . on the contrary 


86 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


therefore 

consequently 

similarly 


furthermore 
in short 
also 


on the other hand 
in a word 
for all that 


144. Parenthetical Phrases and Clauses.—Preposi¬ 
tional phrases, infinitive phrases, and clauses are often 
inserted in sentences without grammatical relation¬ 
ship. They simply affect the meaning of the sentence 
as a whole, often in the same way that adverbial con¬ 
junctions do. 

Prepositional Phrase: Between ourselves , the information is 
unreliable. 

Infinitive: To tell the truth , he fears the outcome. 

Clause: He stands, as it were , a pillar of the society. 


Exercise 


145. Point out the parenthetical clauses and phrases 
in the following sentences, and explain the effect each 
has upon the meaning of the sentence: 

i 1. This, to tell the truth, is the real cause of the discontent. 

2. His actions were, to say the least, unusual. 

3. This is, as everyone believes, the climax of the affair. 

4. Have you heard, by the way, of the project for a new 
town hall? 

5. You should not, as I have often told you, leave your 
things scattered around. 

6. This, as you will know, is the sum and substance of the 
whole matter. 

7. The whole purpose, in my opinion, of the study of gram¬ 
mar or of rhetoric is improvement in the use of language. 

8. You will be glad, if I am not mistaken, that you did not 
go into the business. 


INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE 87 


9. His work, so we all thought, was the very best on ex¬ 
hibition. 

10. It was a mistake, as he now sees, that he did not accept 
the offer at once. 

11. His people, so he told us, were of Scotch descent. 

12. The old home, to our regret, had burned to the ground. 

13. Your new business, I understand, is a great success. 

14. As the wise man says, Train up a child in the way he 
should go, and when he is old he will not depart from it. 

146. Punctuation of Parenthetical Expressions.— 

All parenthetical expressions are separated from the 
rest of the sentence by commas. 

t Exercise 

147. Point out the prepositional phrases, the infin¬ 
itives, and clauses used parenthetically in the follow¬ 
ing sentences and insert proper punctuation: 

1. To speak truth he was a sorry looking specimen. 

2. A small wool hat rested on the top of his nose for so 
his scanty strip of forehead might be called. 

3. It is I trust reasonably satisfactory and encouraging 
to all. 

4. With firmness in the right as God gives us to see the 
right let us strive to finish the work we are in. 

5. Now a seamstress for example might slip away from her 
work and no one be the wiser. 

6. The clever ones no doubt are more interesting to the 
teacher. 

7. There was a popular writer of romances, who it was 
said used to go round to the fashionable watering places to 
pick up characters. 

8. There is another popular writer who it seems makes 
voluminous indices on men and things, and draws on them 
for his material. 


88 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


9. For some writers might for all that appears in their 
works lie in bed all day and write by night under the excite¬ 
ment of green tea. 

10. Those ten persons as you see could make among them 
upwards of forty-eight thousand pins a day. 

11. True it is generally speaking that “Murder will out/’ 

12. He has not done in point of fact a single thing which 
would entitle him to special notice. 

148. The Nominative Absolute.—Often a noun or 
pronoun and a participle are thrown loosely into a sen¬ 
tence, without any grammatical dependence on other 
words in the sentence. Such expressions are said to be 
in the case absolute , or nominative absolute. 

The nominative absolute must not be confused with 
the participial adjective phrase, which modifies a noun 
or pronoun, though it may be separated from it in the 
sentence. 


Examples 

Absolute: Peace having been restored, every one was happy. 

Participle: Peace, having been broken for thirty years , was 
now welcomed by all. 

Exercise 

149. Tell which participial expressions in the fol¬ 
lowing sentences are nominative absolutes and which 
are participial adjectives: 

1. The wind having gone down, we went for a row on the 
lake. 

2. The speaker, throwing aside his notes, held the audience 
spellbound for an hour by his simple earnestness. 

3. The day being rainy, we stayed at home. 


INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE 89 


4. The dog, leaping over a fence, followed an obscure trail 
up the mountain side. 

5. However, living near the water, I was much in and about 
it, learned early to swim well, and to manage boats. 

6. Having waited in vain for an hour, we were compelled 
to give up the journey. 

7. Our horse being very lame, we got out and walked the 
rest of the way. 

8. The teacher being ill, school was dismissed for the day. 

9. The storm having passed, we continued our journey. 

10. The child, having been deserted by its parents, was 
tenderly cared for by the good sisters. 

11. Spring being now here, we began in earnest on the busi¬ 
ness of farming. 

12. The sails, flapping idly in the wind, were quite empty. 

150. The Punctuation of Absolute Expressions.— 
Like all other independent elements, the nominative 
absolute is cut off from the rest of the sentence by 
commas. 

151. The Use of the Nominative Absolute.—The 

case absolute is a form borrowed from Latin, and is 
not always clear in English. It can always be trans¬ 
formed into a simple participial phrase or into some 
form of dependent clause. The dependent clause or¬ 
dinarily expresses more clearly the thought relation¬ 
ship, and is therefore usually more desirable. 

Examples 

Absolute: Peace having been declared , all business enterprises 
revived. 

Clause: As soon as peace was declared , all business enterprises 
revived. 


9 ° 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


Exercise 

152. Change the absolute expressions to dependent 
clauses, preserving the same punctuation, unless you 
rearrange the sentences. 

1. Awaiting the verdict, the court was closed. 

2. The wind having gone down, we had to lower our sails 
and row to shore. 

3. The deer, having been driven from his last retreat, stood 
at bay. 

4. The result of the election having been announced, the 
crowd left the hall. 

5. The winter being over, we set about the work out of 
doors. 

6. His book not being interesting, Henry left it and went 
out to join his playmates. 

7. The collie having gathered the sheep into the fold, we 
set out to look for the one lost lamb. 

8. Snow having fallen steadily all night, paths had to be 
made before we could get to the barn the next morning. 

9. The mail not having yet arrived, we took a walk through 
the village. 

10. The term of his imprisonment being ended, he was once 
more a free man. 

11. The force not being sufficient to handle the rush of 
work, many new men were hired. 

12. The fire having gained great headway, there was no 
hope of saving the building. 

13. The chores being done, Rob and Joe were allowed to 
set out for a day’s fishing. 

14. The horses being refreshed by the rest and noonday 
feed, we set out again on our journey. 

15. The sun being very hot, they sought the shelter of the 
woods. 


CHAPTER VIII 


The Sentence 

153. The Nature and Function of the Sentence.— 

The ordinary definition of a sentence is, that it is a 
word or a group of words expressing a complete 
thought. Not every group of words, as we have seen, 
expresses a complete thought. A subject with its mod¬ 
ifiers does not, because nothing is said about it. Some¬ 
times the subject and its verb do not express a com¬ 
plete idea. A complement is necessary to finish the 
thought. A complete thought may, however, be ex¬ 
pressed by a single word. A command given to some¬ 
one to go, to fire, in which the subject is implied, ex¬ 
presses a complete thought and constitutes a sentence. 

154. The Simple Sentence. —A simple sentence is 
a group of words that contains one and only one state¬ 
ment. This form of sentence, however, may contain 
more than one subject, more than one verb, or both. 
There may also be word or phrase modifiers, such as 
adjectives, adverbs, phrases of various kinds, and ex¬ 
pressions in apposition. The chief value of the simple 
sentence lies in the fact that by its directness it centers 
attention on a single thought. 

Examples 

1. Fire! 

2. Fred came. 


92 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


3. One afternoon late in the autumn, a terrific storm passed 
over the valley, threatening everything with destruction. 

4. The tide ebbs and flows. 

5. Men, women, and children were enthusiastic. 

6. Young and old stood up and shouted. 

Exercise A 

155. We sometimes use clauses where simple ad¬ 
jective phrases, or appositional expressions would do 
better. Change the dependent clauses so as to make 
simple sentences of the following: 

1. Some hastened forth in order that they might meet 
friends. 

2. A solitary table, which had two or three books on it, 
stood in the center of the room. 

3. His manners showed that he had no culture. 

4. When they had finished the work they departed. 

5. One should take a long walk when the sun is bright. 

6. On the ground floor is a large hall, which opens upon 
an alley. 

7. When spring is here, you can see the bees seeking the 
pussy willows. 

8. John, who is a brother of Henry, was in the same class. 

9. A magazine makes a good Christmas gift, which will 
be new twelve times a year. 

10. A schoolroom which is well ventilated is usually healthy. 

11. I found him with the organist, where they were seated 
apart, discoursing on high doctrinal subjects. 

12. Men once undertook to build a tower which should 
reach up to heaven. 

13. Some are never at ease when they are in the presence of 
a superior. 

14. So, as he fed himself with many sweet thoughts, he 
ourneyed along. 


THE KINDS OF SENTENCES 


93 


15. The horizon was of a fine golden tint, which changed 
gradually into a purple apple-green, and then into the deep 
blue of the mid-heaven. 


Exercise B 

156. Sometimes we destroy the entire value of the 
simple sentence by putting into other sentences what 
should be simply a modifier. Condense each of the 
following groups of sentences into a simple sentence: 

1. The Avon winds through the park. It makes a bend 
just at the foot of a gently sloping bank. The bank sweeps 
down from the rear of the house. 

2. Among the rest was a tall, straight old fellow. He had 
a healthy complexion and silver hair. He wore a small round- 
crowned white hat. 

3. I rose at an early hour. I looked out between the 
branches of eglantine. They over-hung the casement. 

4. The house stood but little more than three miles distance 
from Stratford. I resolved to pay it a pedestrian visit. 

5. We reached a village. It was evening. We deter¬ 
mined to pass the night there. 

6. It was a spacious apartment. A fire of logs had been 
heaped up to warm the room. The fire was blazing and 
crackling. The flame went sparkling and wreathing up the 
wide-mouthed chimney. 

7. We took a walk of a couple of miles. It was a refresh¬ 
ing walk. We came to the desired point. It was in the woods. 

8. Washington was the father of his country. He crossed 
a river. It was the Delaware. He crossed it in winter. 

9. Washington is the capital of the United States. It is 
named for George Washington. It is situated in the District 
of Columbia. 

10. The boy was late. He was late at school. He is a 
small boy. He has freckles and red hair. 


94 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


11. John was jealous of Richard. Richard was his older 
brother. He was king of England. John was a prince. 

12. An archer shot an arrow at a mark. He was dressed 
in green. His arrow was a yard long. The mark was a willow 
twig. 

13. Ichabod carried his whip perpendicularly in his hand. 
It looked like a scepter. His horse jogged on. The motion 
of his arms was not unlike the flapping of a pair of wings. 

14. The schoolhouse sits on a hill. It is painted white. 
It has many windows. The hill is high. 


Exercise C 


157. State what you consider to be the most im¬ 
portant idea you can think of in connection with each 
of the subjects given below. Make simple sentences 
containing phrases, appositive expressions, or both. 


1. The school clock. 

2. A woodpecker. 

3. A castle. 

4. A storm. 

5. Apple trees in bloom. 

6. Trees in autumn. 

7. June. 

8. M)^ favorite poem. 


9. The first snowfall. 

10. The study of English. 

11. The navy. 

12. Longfellow. 

13. The school library. 

14. The Philippines. 

15. A day in March. 

16. Athletic sports. 


158. The Prepositional Phrase.—A group of words 
consisting of a preposition and its object with or with¬ 
out modifiers is a prepositional phrase. The object of 
the preposition may be a single word, a phrase, or a 
clause. The phrase may serve as one of several parts 
of speech,—the noun, the adjective, the adverb, and 
the preposition. As modifier it is used to describe ob¬ 
jects or actions, to restrict or limit ideas, and to give 
additional information. 


THE KINDS OF SENTENCES 


95 


Examples 

Descriptive: The dress is of a modest brown color. 

Limiting: Fruit from Oregon keeps well. 

Additional: Mr. Smith, of New York , was the guest of the 
evening. 


Exercise A 

159. Point out all the prepositional phrases in the 
following sentences, and explain the use of each: 

1. There was a heavy fall of rain. 

2. The blossoms of the apple tree are very fragrant. 

, 3. I had not been long at the inn when a post chaise drove 

up to the door. 

4. It was a room of spacious dimensions. 

5. I was roused from this fit of luxurious meditation by a 
shout from my travelling companions. 

6. In the course of a December tour in Yorkshire, I rode 
for a long distance in one of the public coaches, on the day 
preceding Christmas. 

7. I found myself in a lofty antique hall. 

8. They are like gigantic trees that we sometimes see on 
the banks of a stream. 

9. On one of those sober and rather melancholy days, in 
the latter part of autumn, I passed several hours in rambling 
about Westminster Abbey. 

10. Suddenly the. notes of the deep-laboring organ burst 
upon the ear. 

11. The last beams of day were now faintly streaming 
through the painted windows in the high vaults. 

12. To me the meanest flower that grows can give 
Thoughts that do often lie too deep forbears. 

13. He talked of the wondrous things he saw. 

14. They grew in beauty side by side. 


g6 SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 

15. The voice of the seneschal flared like a torch, 

As he shouted the wanderer away from the porch, 
And he sat in the gateway and saw all night 
The great hall-fire, so cheery and bold, 

Through the window-slits of the castle old, 

Build out its piers of ruddy light 
Against the drift of the cold. 


Exercise B 

160. Insert appropriate phrases in the blanks below, 
and explain the use of each phrase supplied. 

1. He wore a coat-. 

2. He mentioned it-. 

3. Sancho replied-. 

4. The keeper gave an account-. 

5. The edifice-rises-. 

6. The hills were covered-. 

7. -I wandered up and down, searching and plucking 

those most beautiful-. 

8. The perfume-is exquisite. 

9. -one finds an atmosphere of pleasure and peaceful¬ 

ness. 

10. The dress-and the accouterments were unfit- 


11. The old clock stood-. 

12. Why were you late-this morning? 

13. The place rang ——. 

14. The result-may now be seen. 

15. He went-where he bought a pair-. 

16. The buds-the trees are bursting-. 

17. The old swimmimg-hole-was a favorite resort-. 

18. The telegraph had not been invented-. 

19. We remember-the events-. 

20. The little bird sits-. 




THE KINDS OF SENTENCES 


97 


161. The Complex Sentence.—A complex sentence 
is one that contains a principal statement, or clause, 
and a dependent statement, or clause. The principal 
clause is complete in itself and could stand without 
the dependent clause. But the dependent statement 
is not complete in itself. It takes the place of some 
part of speech, and performs the function of that part 
of speech. The chief function of the complex sentence 
is to indicate that which is principal from that which 
is purely dependent. It shows clear, definite relation¬ 
ships. 

Examples 

Noun clause: What they did was glorious. 

Adjective clause: The house, which is very old , has been painted. 

Adverbial clause: They will stay till we come. 

162. The Dependent Clause.—A dependent clause 
has all the elements necessary to a complete sentence, 
but it depends for its meaning upon something else. 
It is connected with the main clause by a word that 
shows it to be incomplete in thought. 

The dependent clause may serve as noun, adjective, 
or adverb. The noun clause may be a subject, a com¬ 
plement, an appositive, or the object of a preposition. 
The adjective clause may modify a noun or a pronoun, 
or the whole clause. As adverb the clause usually 
modifies a verb, infinitive, or participle; but may mod¬ 
ify an adjective, adverb, and adverbial conjunction. 

Exercise A 

163. Explain the use and construction of the de¬ 
pendent clauses in the following sentences: 


9 8 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


1. The Christian knight, who was well acquainted with 
the customs of Eastern warriors, did not mean to exhaust his 
good horse by any unnecessary exertion. 

2. Now the heart is so full that a drop o’erfills it, 

We are happy now because God wills it. 

3. Who knows whither the clouds have fled? 

4. We see dimly in the Present what is small and what is 
great. 

5. Green and broad was every tent, 

And out of each a murmur went 
Till the breeze fell off at night. 

6. He gives only worthless gold 
Who gives from a sense of duty. 

7. When he was from sixty to seventy years of age, Words¬ 
worth reached the height of his popularity. 

8. We knew what he meant by that one word. 

9. The result was what I had hoped it might be. 

10. It was not necessary that you make it so long. 

11. How much of it was true was a question. 

12. The little birds sang as if it were 

The one day of summer in all the year. 

13. He came because he was invited. 

14. We eat that we may live. 

15. The man was so dishonest that no one trusted him. 

16. Though it stormed, they set forth. 

Exercise B 

164. Complete the sentences given below and ex¬ 
plain the office of each clause added: 

1. It was a noble thought that-. 

2. I believe that-. 

3. While-, we heard the report of a gun. 

4. You have the first as-. 

5. We had not walked much farther before-. 

6. When -, Scott related the story of a whimsical 

picture hanging in the room. 


THE KINDS OF SENTENCES 


99 


7. These little stories and anecdotes, which-, rose nat¬ 

urally out of the subject. 

8. What-was impossible. 

9. His home, if-, was in England. 

10. The lake was as large as-. 

11. It is a pity that-. 

12. He would laugh if-. 

13. Though-, they are not so popular as Wordsworth’s. 

14. The patriots, who -, were everywhere equally for¬ 

tunate. 

15. The next winter was spent in France, where-. 

165. The Compound Sentence.—A compound sen¬ 
tence is a sentence that consists of two or more state¬ 
ments of equal importance. They may or may not 
be connected by conjunctions. In either case each 
could stand alone and form a sentence by itself. The 
chief use, or function, of this kind of sentence is, there¬ 
fore, to indicate that two or more statements are of 
equal importance; or, that one thing happened inde¬ 
pendently of the other; though one may have followed 
the other. 

Examples 

1. (1) The stars shine out and (2) all is still. 

2. (1) I love June; (2) it is the season of beauty. 

3. (1) I thought he would be here before this; but (2) some¬ 
thing unforeseen must have delayed him. 

Exercise A 

166. Many sentences are made complex that should 
be compound. Make the italicized clauses in the sen¬ 
tences below independent; thus: 

Complex: That he was wrong he knew. 

Compound: He was wrong and he knew it. 


IOO 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


1. When I surrendered my self to my imagination, I built a 
thousand castles in the air. 

2. Though the old log canoe was very clumsy, it lasted a great 
many years. 

3. Since Wordworth’s sister was so devoted to him, they 
planned to have a home together. 

4. The sun shines so that the earth is glad. 

5. Although art is long, time is fleeting. 

6. As the leaves floated silently to the earth, the snow covered 
them with its white mantle. 

7. When the storm had cleared the air, a great calm followed. 

8. The birds have returned when the flowers are in bloom. 

9. Although he was about the middle height, the thinness of 
his body gave him the appearance of being much taller. 

10. When the door suddenly opened, a train of children came 
trooping into the room. 

11. While all the rivers run into the sea, the sea is not full. 

12. The sun rules the day, while the moon rules the night. 

13. God made the country, while man made the town. 

14. As the bells were ringing for church, a robin sang in the 
tree top. 

Exercise B 

167. Sentences often are made compound when they 
should be complex. Express the proper relationships 
between the ideas in the following sentences by mak¬ 
ing one idea in each subordinate; thus: 

Compound: The day may be cloudy, and we cannot go. 

Complex: If the day should be cloudy, we cannot go. 

1. I returned to the drawing-room and found the company 
seated round the fire. 

2. His picture hung up in the hall and it was thought by 
the servants to have something supernatural about it. 

3. I had been for some time in the rich scenery about 
Edinburgh, and I began to wish myself back again among my 
own honest gray hills. 


KINDS OF SENTENCES 


IOI 


5. We returned and spent the following week at the beach. 

6. Grant arrived with reinforcements, but the attack was 
made the day before. 

7. He had run very fast, and he was exhausted. 

8. I passed through the hall, on my way to my chamber, 
and the dying ember of the Yule log still sent forth a dusky 
glow. 

9. We now came in full view of the old family mansion, and 
it was partly thrown in deep shadow, and partly lit up by the 
cold moonshine. 

10. The church was a very old building of gray stone, and 
most of the family walked to it that morning. 

11. The moon is without life; that is well known. 

12. The blotter was not at hand, and I waited for my ink 
to dry. 

13. We’ll make the world a better place yet, and we are able 
to do so. 

14. At the end of the apartment was a large fire grate; over 
the top of it were stretched some iron bars. 

15. The summons was emphatic, and there was a consider¬ 
able degree of bustle instantly in the castle. 






PART II 


THE PARTS OF SPEECH 




CHAPTER IX 


Nouns and Noun Equivalents 

168. The Function of Nouns.—The noun is com¬ 
monly defined as the name of something. This defini¬ 
tion is good if we understand something in its broad¬ 
est sense, including both material objects and pure 
ideas. Nouns may be the names of several kinds of 
objects and ideas. We may say that it is the function 
of nouns to serve as the names of— 

1. Objects: tree, house, sky, New York, Arabia. 

2. Persons: boy, aunt, child, man, Tennysom, George. 

3. Groups of persons or things: crew, company, herd, fleet. 

4. Actions: cry, play, stop, laughter, hurry. 

5. Qualities of objects: bitterness, hardness, roughness, 
fragrance, height. 

6. States of being: idleness, health, sleep, wakefulness. 

7. Pure ideas: faith, hope, love, thought, mercy. 

169. Kinds of Nouns.—The number of nouns in the 
language is much larger than that of any other class. 
This large family of words is divided into two groups 
or classes. To one class we assign all words like book, 
boy , herd , and river, which apply to any one of a large 
group of objects or ideas, and we call them common 
nouns. To the other class we assign all words like 
Albany, Henry , America , Amazon , which apply to 

105 


io6 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


only one particular individual, place, or thing; and we 
call them proper nouns. 

170. Kinds of Common Nouns.—Two types of com¬ 
mon nouns are sometimes classified for convenience in 
accordance with the kind of things they name. They 
are the collective noun and the abstract noun. 

171. The Abstract Noun.—Names of qualities or of 
pure ideas are called abstract nouns. 

Examples: goodness, beauty, wisdom, friendship, speed. 

172. The Collective Noun.—A common noun used 
as the name of a group or collection of things is called 
a collective noun. 

Examples: flock, drove, choir, jury, herd. 

173. Treatment of Collective Nouns.—Sometimes 
the collective noun is treated in the sentence as a sing¬ 
ular noun, and sometimes as a plural noun. If the idea 
expressed applies to the group of things as a unit, the 
noun is regarded as singular, and a singular verb or 
pronoun will be used. If, however, the idea of the sen¬ 
tence is to tell something about each of the groups as 
individuals, the word is treated as plural, and is used 
with a plural verb, and plural reference pronouns, if 
there be any. 

Examples 

Singular: The jury was discharged. 

Plural: The jury were being served to dinner. 

Singular: The crew showed that it was under strict discipline. 

Plural: The crew were scattered about here and there taking 
their ease. 


NOUNS AND NOUN EQUIVALENTS 


107 


Exercise A 

174. Tell the class to which each noun belongs in 
the sentences below. Insert the proper verbs, pro¬ 
nouns, or pronominal adjectives in the blank spaces, 
and explain the reason for your choice. 

1. The lowing herd-slowly o’er the lea (wind, winds). 

2. It was a holiday; and the regiment - taking ad¬ 
vantage of it to write-- sisters, mothers, and sweethearts 

(was, were) (its, their). 

3. The class-the best trained in school (is, are). 

4. The army-in great danger (were, was). 

5. The class-had-reports (have, has) (its, their). 

6. The fleet-badly damaged (were, was). 

7. The audience - putting on - hats (were, was), 

(their, its). 

8. The whole family-well educated (is, are). 

9. The choir-the best in town (is, are). 

10. The concert was the best of the season, and the audience 
-very large (was, were). 

11. His family-in the finest house on the street (live, 

lives). 

12. The choir - difficult to bring into harmony (was, 

were). 

13. The flock-almost all white (is, are). 

14. The committee - gone to - place of meeting 

(have, has) (its, their). 

15. His flock-much larger than mine (is, are). 

Exercise B 

175. Make two thoughtful statements about each 
of the following things, one of which shall use the word 
in the singular sense, and the other in the plural sense: 


io8 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


1. swarm (of bees) 

2. squadron 

3. class 

4. committee 


6. flock 

7. army 

8. assemblage 


5. division 


9. jury 

10. audience 

11. family 

12. drove 


176. The Gender of Nouns.—Nouns are classified 
in still another way. It is in accordance with the sex 
of the objects which they name. This classification 
is called gender. 

Masculine is applied to nouns which name objects of 
the male sex. 

Examples: boy, he-goat, serving man, rooster, priest. 

Feminine is applied to nouns which name objects of 
the female sex. 

Examples: girl, she-goat, serving-woman, hen, priestess. 

Common is applied to nouns which name objects 
that may be of either the male or female sex. 

Examples: lamb, colt, child, bird, animal. 

Neuter is applied to nouns which name objects with¬ 
out sex. 

Examples: board, snow, river, sky, time, wisdom. 

177. Ways of Denoting Gender.—There are three 
common ways in which the gender of words may be 
distinguished,— 

1. By separate words: man, woman; brother, sister; gander, 

goose. 

2. By prefixes: man-servant, maid-servant; he-bear, she-bear; 

bull-elephant, cow-elephant. 

3. By suffixes: host, hostess; heir, heiress; executor, execu¬ 

trix. 


NOUNS AND NOUN EQUIVALENTS 109 

178. Feminine Suffixes.—The suffixes that denote 
the feminine gender are few in number, and only one 
of the few appears in a large number of words. The 
endings -ine (hero, heroine), -ster (spinner, spinster), 
and -trix (testator, testatrix) are rare; but -ess is to 
be found in a considerable number of words. Some¬ 
times the -ess is added to the masculine form without 
change, and sometimes the ending of the masculine 
undergoes a slight change, usually the dropping of a 
letter. 

The following is a list of the more common words of 
this kind: 


abbot 

abbess 

host 

hostess 

actor 

actress 

hunter 

. huntress 

administrator 

administratrix 

idolater 

idolatress 

adventurer 

adventuress 

Jew 

Jewess 

baron 

baroness 

lad 

lass 

benefactor 

benefactress 

lion 

lioness 

count 

countess 

marquise 

marchioness 

czar 

czarina 

master 

mistress 

deacon 

deaconess 

patron 

patroness 

duke 

duchess 

preceptor 

preceptress 

emperor 

empress 

prince 

princess 

enchanter 

enchantress 

prophet 

prophetess 

executor 

executrix 

shepherd 

shepherdess 

giant 

giantess 

sorcerer 

sorceress 

god 

goddess 

sultan 

sultana 

heir 

heiress 

tiger 

tigress 

hero 

heroine 

waiter 

waitress 

179. Personification of 

Common 

Nouns.—Some- 


times, for the sake of force or effect of some other kind, 
objects are treated as if they were persons. In such a 


no 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


case, we have to regard them as either masculine or 
feminine in gender. 

Example: And I have loved thee, Ocean, from my boyhood. 
Exercise 

180. Tell the gender of all the nouns in the follow¬ 
ing sentences, and explain cases of personification: 

1. The sun now rose upon the right 

Out of the sea came he. 

2. O Rome! my country, city of the soul! 

The orphans of the heart must turn to thee, 

Lone mother of dead empires. 

3. O, a dainty plant is the ivy green, 

That creepeth o’er ruins old! 

Of right choice food are his meals, I ween, 

In his cell so lone and cold. 

4. But Knowledge to their eyes her ample page, 

Rich with the spoils of time, did ne’er unroll. 

5. Fair Science frown’d not on his humble birth, 

And Melancholy marked him for her own. 

6. O Tiber! Father Tiber! 

To whom the Romans pray, 

A Roman’s life, a Roman’s arms, 

Take thou in charge this day! 

7. ’Tis the last rose of summer, 

Left blooming alone; 

All her lovely companions 
Are faded and gone. 

8. Maiden, and mistress of the months and stars now 

folded in flowerless fields of heaven, 

Goddess whom all gods love with threefold heart, 

Hear now and help. 

9. I stood in Venice on the Bridge of Sighs; 

A palace and a prison on each hand: 

I saw from out the wave her structure rise 
As from the stroke of the enchanter’s wand. 


NOUNS AND NOUN EQUIVALENTS 


III 


io. Shepherds all, and maidens fair, 

Fold your flocks up; for the air 
’Gins to thicken, and the sun 
Already his great course has run. 

181. The Number of Nouns.—Words that suggest 
only a single object are in the singular number. Words 
that suggest more than one of the things denoted by 
the word are in the plural number. 

182. Formation of the Plural.— 

1. Most nouns form their plural by adding s to the 
singular. 

Examples: day, days; horse, horses; desk, desks. 

2. Nouns that already end in s or a sound that does 
not readily unite with s, form the plural by adding es. 

Examples: dress, dresses; box, boxes; church, churches. 

3. Nouns ending in 0 preceded by a vowel form their 
plural by adding s. 

Examples: portfolio, portfolios; curio, curios. 

But those ending in 0 preceded by a consonant, have 
a tendency to add es. 

Examples: potato, potatoes; echo, echoes; hero, heroes. 

There are a few common exceptions to this last rule. 

Examples: banjo, banjos; solo, solos; canto, cantos; halo, 
halos. 

4. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant 
change the y to i and add es. 

Examples: city, cities; glory, glories; lady, ladies. 


112 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


5. Nouns ending in y preceded by a vowel simply 
add s. 

Examples: chimney, chimneys; valley, valleys; convoy, 
convoys. 

6. Nouns ending in guy form their plurals by chang¬ 
ing y to i and adding es. 

Examples: soliloquy, soliloquies; obloquy, obloquies. 

7. Many nouns ending in / and fe, change / to v and 
add s or es. 

Examples: calf, calves; half, halves; leaf, leaves; wolf, 
wolves; knife, knives; loaf, loaves; wife, wives; life, lives; self, 
selves. 


183. Plurals of Compound Nouns.— 

1. Most compound nouns form their plural by add¬ 
ing 5. 

Examples: spoonful, spoonfuls; household, households; 
major-general, major-generals. 


2. Some compound nouns pluralize the first part of 
the compound: 


Singular 

father-in-law 

mother-in-law 

son-in-law 

attorney-at-law 

coat-of-mail 

court-martial 

commander-in-chief 

hanger-on 

passer-by 

man-of-war 


Plural 

fathers-in-law 

mothers-in-law 

sons-in-law 

attorneys-at-law 

coats-of-mail 

courts-martial 

commanders-in-chief 

hangers-on 

passers-by 

men-of-war 


NOUNS AND NOUN EQUIVALENTS 113 


3. A few nouns pluralize 
pound: 

Singular 

Examples: man-servant 

woman-servant 

knight-templar 


both parts of the com- 
Plural 

men-servants 

women-servants 

knights-templars 


184. Foreign Plurals.—Some nouns of foreign origin 
retain the forms which they had in their original lan¬ 
guages. A list of the most common ones follows: 


Singular 

Plural 

alumnus (masculine) 

alumni 

alumna (feminine) 

alumnae 

appendix 

appendices 

axis 

axes 

bandit 

banditti (but more commonly bandits) 

calix 

calices 

cherub 

cherubim (or cherubs) 

crisis 

crises 

criterion 

criteria (or criterion) 

datum 

data 

dilettante 

dilettanti 

ellipsis 

ellipses 

erratum 

errata 

focus 

foci (or focuses) 

fungus 

fungi 

index 

indices (in mathematics; as the index of 
a book, the form of the plural is 


usually indexes ) 

oasis 

oases 

parenthesis 

parentheses 

phenomenon 

phenomena 

radius 

radii 

stimulus 

stimuli 

thesis 

theses 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


114 

185. Plurals of Letters, Figures, and Symbols.— 

The plurals of letters, figures, and symbols are formed 
by adding ’ s . 

Examples: There are two t’s in the word. 

How many 5’s are there in 25? 

Distinguish your s’s from your x’s. 


Exercise 

186. Rewrite the following sentences making the 
nouns all plural: 

1. Henry found a fine tomato lying in the alley. 

2. There was only one 7 on the page. 

3. The aid-de-camp was riding swiftly toward the army. 

4. Harry bought a knife with his money. 

5. The wheat was bound into a sheaf. 

6. Use one cupful of sugar. 

7. The hunter chased the fox many miles. 

8. The man-servant drove an ox hitched to a cart. 

9. There is only one piano in the village. 

10. I want a shelf put up in the pantry. 

11. The chimney was made of stone. 

12. The man was afraid a thief would get into his house. 

13. There is a valley on the other side of the mountain. 

14. My daughter-in-law has gone to call on the lady next 
door. 

15. Bring a potato and we will roast it in our bonfire. 

16. The maid had a beautiful cameo. 

17. What does the woman mean by saying that she is an 
alumna of the college? 

18. Are you afraid of that goose? 

19. The artist was a German, not a Frenchman. 

20. The knight-templar and his horse found water at an 
oasis in the desert. 


NOUNS AND NOUN EQUIVALENTS 115 

187. The Case of Nouns.— Nouns have three cases, 
the nominative, the possessive, and the objective. 

188. The Nominative Case. —A noun used as sub¬ 
ject of the sentence, as subjective complement, or in 
direct address is in the nominative case. 

Examples 

1. The audience arose and cheered. 

2. He is the man of whom I spoke. 

3. Here, James, is the book you were looking for. 

189. The Possessive Case. —The possessive case of 
the noun is formed by adding ’s to the singular, the 
apostrophe only to the plurals of nouns ending in s , 
and ’s to the plurals of those not ending in s. 

This case has the same force, or function, as the ad¬ 
jective, and is treated as an adjective by some gram¬ 
marians. 

Examples 

1. The dog's kennel was large. 

2. The dogs' kennels were large. 

3. Washington's cleverness thwarted the enemy's plans on 
several occasions. 

4. There was a full hour's delay. 

5. The man's overcoats had been stolen. 

190. The Objective Case. —Nouns used as objective 
complement, as object of a preposition, or as subject 
of an infinitive are in the objective case. 

Examples 

1. The bee knows the best flowers for honey. 

2. The committee made Mr. Smith chairman. 

3. They made the fellow obey. 

4. They made him obey. 


n6 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


191. The Double Possessive. —By double posses¬ 
sive is meant the use of the possessive case after the 
preposition of, which also denotes possession. This is 
one of the idioms of the English language. 

Examples 

1. Where is that arithmetic of Harry’s? 

2. Here is a good story of Mr. Smith’s. 

192. The Group Possessive. —When there are sev¬ 
eral words in a group all of which taken as a unit ex¬ 
press the idea of possession toward a noun, the last 
word of the group takes the possessive form. The 
same is true of a series of nouns each'of which expresses 
the idea of possession toward a noun. 

Examples 

1. The Tsar of Russia’s position is insecure. 

2. John, Henry, and James’s books were all lost in the fire. 

Exercise 

193. Explain the case of every noun in the follow¬ 
ing sentences: 

1. Heaven lies about us in our infancy. 

2. Dickens’s David Copperfield is James’s favorite book. 

3. I was invited to John and Mary’s home. 

4. Do you like Edith and Jennie’s new dresses? 

5. I wish to look at some boy’s shoes. 

6. The man does not regard anybody else’s rights. 

7. John, will you bring me your sister Mary’s report card? 

9. Canada is one of King Edward of England’s possessions. 

10. Nothing is impossible to diligence and skill. 

11. Pride goeth before destruction, and a haughty spirit 
before a fall. 


NOUNS AND NOUN EQUIVALENTS 


117 


12. Night’s candles are burned out, and jocund day 
Stands tiptoe on the misty mountain tops. 

13. But yesterday the word of Caesar might 

Have stood against the world; now lies he there, 

And none so poor to do him reverence. 

14. And Evan’s, Donald’s fame rings in each clansman’s ears! 

15. ’Tis midnight’s holy hour, and silence now 
Is brooding like a gentle spirit o’er 

The still and pulseless world. 

194. The Possessive Case with Participles.—A 
noun used to modify a participial noun, to explain 
whose act is mentioned, should always be in the pos¬ 
sessive case. 


Examples 

1. Henry's going is uncertain. 

2. There is no doubt about Dr. Smith's succeeding. 

3. They rather enjoyed John's objecting to their arrange¬ 
ments. 


Exercise 

195. In the blank spaces below insert the proper 
case of the nouns. 

1. There was more wrong than the-neglecting things 

(fellow). 

2. I can not forget-trying to deceive me (the boy). 

3. The-finding it so soon was remarkable (children). 

4. I can not bear to think of-being in the city alone 

(Mary). 

5. There was no doubt about the-being guilty (man). - 

6. I was surprised at-taking that side of the question 

(the professor). 

7. Everyone was disappointed at - deciding the case 

in that way (the judge). 


n8 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


8. -taking up the study of law was against his father's 

wish (Henry). 

9. The-determining to open a millinery shop surprised 

everybody (sisters). 

10. He felt very bad over his —-— going away (friend). 

196. Nouns in Apposition.— When one noun is 
placed after another noun for the purpose of explain¬ 
ing it, thus taking the place of an explanatory or rel¬ 
ative clause, it is said to be in apposition with the first 
one. The two nouns are in the same case. If the first 
is a nominative, the second will also be, and if the first 
is an objective or a possessive, the second will be the 
same. If the two nouns are in the possessive case, 
however, only the second will take the sign of the pos¬ 
sessive. 

Examples 

Nominative: Mr. Stone, the carpenter, was in town to-day. 

Objective: I saw Mr. Stone, the carpenter, in town to-day. 

Possessive: This is Mr. Stone, the carpenter's house. 

Observe the difference in punctuation in these three 
sentences. 

197. Appositives with “ Or.” —Sometimes two words 
which are different names for the same thing are used 
connected by or. One explains the other . The or and 
the second noun are cut off from the rest of the sen¬ 
tence by commas. 

Examples 

1. Frederick, or Fritz, was a fine fellow. 

2. The ground-hog, or woodchuck, is common in the neigh¬ 
borhood. 


NOUNS AND NOUN EQUIVALENTS 


119 


Exercise 

198. Write out the following sentences inserting 
commas where needed, and explain why they are 
needed: 

1. John what are you doing with that saw your father’s 
best one? 

2. The bison or buffalo is rapidly becoming extinct. 

3. Paul the apostle was beheaded in the reign of Nero 
emperor of Rome. 

4. Come gentle Spring ethereal Mildness come. 

5. Our father’s God to thee 

Author of liberty 

To thee we sing. 

6. And glory to our Sovereign Liege 

King Henry of Navarre! 

7. The metropolis or largest city of the state is Chicago. 

8. Remorseless Time 
Fierce spirit of the glass and scythe what power 
Can stay him in his silent course? 

9. “Mr. Mayor” my young one how are you to-night? 

10. I have a son a little son a boy just five years old. 

11. Father of all in every age 

In every clime adored 
By saint by savage and by sage 

Jehovah Jove or Lord! 

12. At last divine Cecilia came 
Inventress of the vocal frame. 

13. Friar Tuck brought out a venison pie or pastry. 

14. There were many chipmunks or ground squirrels around 
the cottage. 

15. A stiff white frill or ruche was the usual neckwear of 
the Dutch. 

199. The Person of Nouns. —Nouns are most often 
used in the third person, that of the individual or thing 
spoken of. 


120 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


In cases of direct address, the name of the person 
spoken to is said to be in the second person. 

Example: Martin, will you go on an errand for me? 

A noun in apposition with a pronoun that refers to 
the speaker is said to be in the first person. 

Example: I, John, saw these things. 

200. Noun Equivalents.—In the chapters that deal 
with the subject and complements, we learned that 
many words, usually used as other parts of speech, and 
phrases, clauses, infinitives, and participles serve as 
subject or object of the verb. 

Examples 

Adjectives: The beautiful is always inspiring. 

He did his best. 

Adverbs: Now is the day of salvation. 

To-day is the time to do it. 

Phrases: Away from home is away from comfort. 

In the country at this time of year is in paradise. 

Clauses: What you learned is true. 

He did what he could. 

Infinitives: Not to live , but to live well, is the business of life. 

They attempted to do too much. 

Participles: His pronouncing is not good. 

They object to his going. 

Exercise A 

201. Pick out all the equivalents of nouns in the fol¬ 
lowing sentences, and explain their syntax, or relation 
to other words: 

1. Oh yet we trust that somehow good 

Will be the final goal of ill. 

2. ’Tis better to have loved and lost 
Than never to have loved at all. 


NOUNS AND NOUN EQUIVALENTS 


12 I 


3. Do your best. No one can do more. 

4. How well, not how, much is the test. 

5. To be or not to be, that is the question. 

6. Out of sight is out of mind with many people. 

7. But Brutus says he was ambitious. 

8. Sleeping out of doors is becoming very common. 

9. Thus to relieve the wretched was his pride. 

10. In the morning is the pleasantest time to be out. 

11. When to start on the journey could not be agreed upon. 

12. To control yourself is necessary before you try to con¬ 
trol others. 

13. He loves only the true, the beautiful, and the good. 

14. You should treat the aged with respect. 

7 15. His going to the city had been long planned for. 

16. The bravest are the tenderest, 

The loving are the daring. 

17. The gay will laugh when thou art gone. 

18. We hope to see you this summer. 

19. I can not tell what you and other men 
Think of this life. 

20. I will not do them wrong; I rather choose 

To wrong the dead, to wrong myself, and you. 

Exercise B 

202. Write sentences in which you use as nouns the 
following expressions: 


1. To sing well. 

11. Just before sunset. 

2. What he could do. 

12. Down by the river. 

3. Michael’s failing in his work. 

13. To live nobly. 

4. The worst. 

14. The oldest. 

5. Just now. 

15. The undoing of the wrong. 

6. To keep cool. 

16. Never. 

7. Talking well. 

17. When to go. 

8. The best he could do. 

18. Why he went. 

9. To be right. 

19. To say that he was wrong. 

10. That you are right. 

20. Keeping house. 


122 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


202a. The Parsing of Nouns. —To parse a noun it 
is necessary to give: 

1. Its class. 

2. Its gender. 

3. Its number. 

4. Its case. 

5. Its use (i. e. its syntax). 


1 


CHAPTER X 

Pronouns 

202. The Function of Pronouns.—There is a small 
but very important class of words which enable us to 
avoid awkward constructions and monotonous rep¬ 
etitions. They are the words that we may substitute 
for nouns. These words are likewise useful in render¬ 
ing the thought clearer, by making definite connec¬ 
tions, and by referring from one part of the sentence 
to another. The function of the pronoun may be said 
to be, therefore, to represent a noun and thereby to 
make clearer certain relationships between various 
parts of the sentence. 


Examples 

With Pronouns: To him who in the love of nature holds 
Communion with her visible forms, she 
Speaks a various language. 

Without Pronouns: Nature speaks a various language to the 
man; the man in love of nature holds 
► communion with nature’s visible forms. 

203. The Kinds of Pronouns.—We usually distin¬ 
guish five different kinds of pronouns. They are clas¬ 
sified in accordance with the ideas which they express 
with respect to the nouns for which they stand. The 
five classes are as follows: 


123 


124 SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 

1. The Personal Pronoun: I, you, he, we, they, me, us, 

them, she, its, hers, his, theirs, 
ours, yours. 

2. The Relative Pronoun: Who, whom, which, what, that. 

3. Interrogative Pronouns: Who, whose, which, what. 

4. Demonstrative Pronouns: This, that, these, those. 

5. Indefinite Pronouns: Each, few, many, anybody, 

somebody, everyone, some, 
someone, etc. 

Exercise 

204. Tell to what class belongs each of the pronouns 
in the following sentences: 

1. Second thoughts, they say, are best. 

2. It seemed to me as if no one ever aimed a blow at Wash¬ 
ington Irving. 

3. He assisted at their sports, made their playthings, and 
taught them to fly kites. 

4. Few, few shall part, where many meet. 

5. This is the fate of man. 

6. They chained us each to a column stone; 

And we were three, yet each alone. 

7. If thou art rich, thou art poor. 

8. They had few books, but these were of the best. 

9. All would live long, but none would be old. 

10. Which of you hath done this? 

11. The evil that men do lives after them. 

12. Neither would go. 

13. Much was lost by it, but something was gained. 

14. It was he whom I saw. 

205. Pronouns and Pronominal Adjectives.—In as 

much as words are classified according to the functions 
they perform, it is necessary for us to be careful not to 
call an adjective a noun, because it usually is a 


PRONOUNS 


I2 5 


noun; nor an adjective, a pronoun because it is us¬ 
ually a pronoun. If a word modifies an expressed noun 
directly, it performs the function of an adjective; if it 
stands in the place of a noun, it is a pronoun. 

Therefore, my, thy , her, our, your , and their are adjectives. 

While, mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, and theirs are usually 
pronouns. 

And, his and its, this, that, these, those, whose, which, what, 
some, etc., may be either adjectives or pronouns. 

206. Explain what words are pronouns and what 
are adjectives in the following sentences: 

1. My book was on his desk. 

2. Whose mistake was it? 

3. He dwells on yonder hill. 

4. The accident was due to your carelessness. 

5. Full of mine own soul, perfect of myself, 

Toward mine and my sufficient. 

6. Ours are the simplest. 

7. Breathes-there a man with soul so dead, 

Who never to himself hath said, 

“This is my own, my native land!” 

Whose heart hath ne’er within him burned 
As home his footsteps he hath turned, 

From wandering on a foreign strand? 

8. The moon pulled off her veil of light. 

9. The birds were building their nests. 

10. This is not like yours. 

11. Which are like mine? 

12. Several of them had gone already. 

13. Some went South, others to the coast. 

14. Each one was counted. 

207. Pronoun and Antecedent. —The noun for 
which a pronoun stands is called its antecedent. The 


126 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


antecedent is not always expressed in the sentence 
with the pronoun. It may be in a preceding sentence 
or it may be understood. Neither does the antecedent, 
when expressed, always precede the pronoun. For 
reasons of force, or emphasis, it is often placed after 
the pronoun. Since, however, the chief purpose of the 
pronoun is to render the sentence clearer, its ante¬ 
cedent should be perfectly clear. In order that this 
may be so, (a) the antecedent should not be too far re¬ 
moved from the pronoun; (b) there should not be a 
confusion of pronouns in the sentence; and (c) the pro¬ 
noun should agree with its antecedent in person, num¬ 
ber, and gender. The person and gender of pronouns 
are matters that usually take care of themselves; but 
we often make serious errors in number, and thus cause 
confusion. 

Examples 

1. (Right) Harry has just brought me a book, which he says 
is the best of this season’s publications. 

2. (Right) An ant is a wise creature for itself, but it is a 
shrewd thing in an orchard or garden. 

3. (Bad) Mr. Smith recalled to Mr. Jones the proposition 
he had made him a few weeks before, when he was at his office. 

4. (Right) Mr. Smith recalled to* Mr. Jones the proposition 
he had made to the latter a few weeks before at Mr. Jones’s 
office. 

5. (Bad) One of the sailors, while reefing the sails, fell over¬ 
board and had to be rescued by their comrades. 

6. (Right) One of the sailors, while reefing the sails, fell 
overboard and had to be rescued by his comrades. 

Exercise A 

208. Insert the proper form of the pronoun in the 
following sentences: 


PRONOUNS 127 

1. The ship with a crew of two hundred starts and sails 

southward until-reaches the equator (they, it). 

2. Everyone should have-choice (his, their). 

3. The mother, as well as the daughter, offered-as¬ 

sistance (their, her). 

4. If anyone can come, let-send in -name (him, 

them), (his, their). 

5. A person who is determined and energetic is apt to 

succeed in-undertakings (his, their). 

6. Every man has thoughts which - think worth re¬ 

cording (he, they). 

7. Every plant and every tree produces others after- 

kind (their, its). 

8. The army being tired, gave up - long tramp (its, 

their). 

9. Many a man who has worked hard all - life must 

leave-work (their, his). 

10. Neither Mary nor Louise expected to see - native 

land again (their, her). 


Exercise B 

209. Point out and correct the mistakes in the use 
of pronouns in the following sentences: 

1. Not one of the party escaped getting their feet wet. 

2. The ship starts and sails southward until they reach a 
region of ice and snow. 

3. The connection between grammar and composition is 
very close, and they should be clearly understood by the 
student. 

4. One of the boys lost their hook, and so had to go back 
for another. 

5. Girls often work in the mills when they are short of help. 

6. John lost his dog when he was but three years old. 

7. Taking out her hat pins, she threw it on the chair. 

8. Before John could swim out to Charles he drowned. 



128 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


9. Before the days of steam and electricity they used to 
travel by stage coach. 

10. Mary said that her mother died when she was quite 
young. 

210. Phrase and Clause Antecedents.—Often there 
is no single word that serves as antecedent of a pro¬ 
noun, but a group of words expressing a single idea. 
This group of words may constitute a phrase or a 
clause. 

Examples 

1. They besought him to withdraw the bill, but he would not 
do it. 

2. The party wished to follow the elephants, but they knew it 
would be too dangerous. 

3. That he will refuse is possible, but I doubt it. 

211. Personal Pronouns.—The personal pronoun 
stands for the person speaking, the person spoken to, 
or the person or thing spoken of. In personification, 
the first and second persons also, may be made to refer 
to things. 

212. The Order of Pronouns.—When personal pro¬ 
nouns are used in a series, or with a series of nouns, the 
pronoun of the first person comes last. 

Examples 

1. Mary, Jane, and I walked to school together. 

2. You, she, and I can go together. 

213. The Impersonal Pronoun.—The pronoun it is 
used in idiomatic expressions as subject or object of 
the verb, when it has no definite antecedent, and no 
particular significance. Since no particular person or 
thing is designated this use of it is called impersonal. 


PRONOUNS 


129 


Examples 

Subject: It is snowing. 

Is it four o’clock yet? 

It is becoming warmer. 

Object: They roughed it all summer. 

They fought it out to the bitter end. 

Note. When the it is the equivalent of this, that, this thing, 
that thing, or the thing, it cannot be considered impersonal. It 
refers to something, though the exact nature of the something 
is unknown. 

Examples 

What is it {that or that thing)} 

It {this, that ) is my brother. 

What is it {the thing) that you see? 

214. “It” as Expletive. —This use of it is sometimes 
called the anticipatory it. To allow the subject to 
take a more easy or more emphatic position, it is sub¬ 
stituted for the real subject which is then thrown after 
the verb. 

Examples 

\ It is necessary for me to go at once. 

( For me to go at once is necessary. 

\ It is predicted that we shall have war with Japan. 

2 * < That we shall have war with Japan is predicted. 

\ It is a question whether he will go or not. 

\ Whether he will go or not is a question. 

215. The Parsing of Pronouns. —To parse a pro¬ 
noun it is necessary to give the following: 

1. Its person. 

2. Its number. 

3. Its gender. 

4. Its syntax (case and construction). 

5. Its antecedent. 


13 ° 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


Exercise A 

216. Parse all of the personal pronouns in the fol¬ 
lowing sentences: 

1. She cannot go with us. 

2. It is not time for the train. 

3. Will you bring me my books? 

4. They received him in their new home. 

5. We have met the enemy, and they are ours. 

(i. Hail to thee, blithe spirit' 

Bird thou never wert. 

7. We feel sure that it would not be possible. 

8. It is I; be not afraid. 

9. I was sure it was not to be. 

10. I believed it to be him. 

11. We could see them for a distance. 

12. They all turned in wonder to look at him. 

Exercise B 

217. Insert the proper form of the pronoun in the 
following blank spaces: 

1. It is-(him, he). 

2. He is taller than-(she, her). 

3. It is-(I, me). 

4. She will go with you and-(I, me). 

5. I thought it was-(they, them). 

6. May Katherine and-go? (me, I). 

7. He hoped that you or-would go (I, me). 

8. To John and-we give all the credit (he, him). 

9. Between you and-it is quite impossible (I, me). 

10. All were there except-(we, us). 

11. If I were-I should refuse (she, her). 

12. He said it was not-(they, them). 

13. I believed it to be-(she, her). 


PRONOUNS 


I 3 I 

14. He did as well as-(I, me). 

15. Anyone could write well if-tried (he, they). 

16. Neither would tell what-saw (he, they). 

17. The man spoke to-sister and-(I, me). 

18. -boys cannot go (we, us). 

19. We do not grieve as-that have no hope (they, them). 

20. What were you and-doing (he, him) ? 

21. His father and-have gone to the city (he, him). 

22. -that seek shall find (they, them). 

23. Such people as-should not be admitted (he, him). 

24. It does not concern either you or-(they, them). 

25. I supposed that one to be-(she,-her). 

26. Which is the taller Mary or-(I, me). 

27. You and-were invited (she, her). 

28. He spoke to the girls and-among the rest (I, me). 

29. There is little difference between you and-(she, her). 

30. Was it-you liked (he, him)? 

218. Relative Pronouns.—Relative pronouns are 
pronouns the principal function of which is to connect 
clauses, or to show the relation between them. All 
clauses introduced by relative pronouns are subordi¬ 
nate, and usually adjective in nature. 

The so-called Double Relative what is in reality the 
equivalent of the demonstrative that and the relative 
which. It, therefore performs the function of a sub¬ 
stantive and of a relative pronoun. 

Examples 

1. This is the prize which John won. 

2. Here is the boy who brought the message. 

3. There is the fellow whose horse was stolen. 

4. What has become of the man whom you told me about. 

5. What you say may be all very well. 

6. He saw at once what was wrong. 


i3 2 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


Exercise 

219. Insert who or whom in the blanks in the fol¬ 
lowing sentences: 

1. That is not the man to-you sent it. 

2. I do not know-to look for. 

3. We saw the man-you thought had left town. 

4. We saw Mr. and Mrs. Brown,-we thought delightful 

people. 

5. He did not say with —— he was going. 

6. I do not know to-you were talking. 

7. We did not know-to ask. 

8. It was she-I met. 

9. There were many-I had never seen. 

10. There are many-we would not choose for friends. 

11. The man-was elected refused to be interviewed. 

12. No one knew-it was to be. 

13. That is the girl-you thought was I. 

220. Omission of the Relative Pronoun. —In rel¬ 
ative clauses the purpose of which is to restrict the 
meaning of the antecedent, the relative pronoun is 

often omitted. 

x Examples 

1. The books (that) she sent are here. 

2. We were unable to find the sort (which) we wanted. 

3. Here are the men (whom) you sent for. 

221. The Antecedents of Relatives. —The ante¬ 
cedents of who and of whom is always a person. Some¬ 
times the antecedent of whose is not a person, but con¬ 
sistency would demand that it should always be. 

The antecedent of which is always an animal, an 
object, or an abstract idea, never a person. 


PRONOUNS 


T 33 


The antecedent of that may be a person, an animal, 
or a thing. 

Examples 

i . The man whom you met is a lawyer. 

2. He who would succeed must work. 

3. The book which you found is Harry’s. 

4. Him that hath ears to hear, let him hear. 

• 5. The idea that he expressed appears good to me. 

222. “As” and “But” as Relatives. —The two words 
hut and as, usually conjunctions or prepositions, are 
sometimes used as relative pronouns. In such cases— 

But is equivalent to a regular relative and the word 
not. 

As usually follows such or same, and sometimes 
could be replaced by that or which. 

Examples 

1. There are none but would have done the same thing. 

2. Such as (Those who) come will be welcome. 

3. These are the same as (that) I brought before. 

223. The Compound Relative Pronouns. —To the 

simple relative pronouns who, whom, which, whose 
and what are added, = ever and = soever. Those com¬ 
pounded with soever are not common in ordinary 
speech. 

Examples 

1. Whoever comes shall be received. 

2. Invite whomsoever you please. 

3. Whosoever it is I am unable to say. 

4. Take whichever pleases you most. 

5. Whatever happens, we will do our best. 


224. Relative Pronouns and Relative Adjectives.— 

The same distinction should be made between relative 


J 34 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


pronouns and relative adjectives as we made between 
possessive pronouns and possessive adjectives. When 
a relative, either simple or compound, stands in the 
place of a noun, it is a pronoun; when it modifies a 
noun it is an adjective. 

Examples 

Pronouns: He did not say which he wanted. 

What he meant I can't tell. 

Adjectives: He did not say which hook he wanted. 

What meaning there is in it I can’t tell. 

Exercise 

225. Tell which are relative pronouns and which are 
relative adjectives in the following sentences: 

1. The president was the only man that could explain it. 

2. He means what he says. 

3. That is the boy whose father was injured. 

4. The reason why he was chosen is unknown. 

5. He could not tell which word to use. 

6. Nature never did betray 
The heart that loved her. 

7. You may do whatever you wish. 

8. There is no time in life when books do not influence a 
man. 

9. It was the best that he could do. 

10. She is the student whose work was so beautifully done. 

11. Do whichever you think is most worth while. 

12. Whoever will may go. 

13. Count that day lost whose low-descending sun 
Views from thy hand no worthy action done. 

14. He is blessed who has found his work. 

15. Tell whomever you see that we shall be there. 

16. That is the same as this. 


PRONOUNS 


135 


226. Interrogative Pronouns. —An interrogative 
pronoun is a pronoun used to introduce a question. 
The pronouns of this class are who, whose, whom, 
which, and what. Their construction in the sentence 
corresponds closely to that of relative pronouns. 

Examples 

1. Who is going with me? 

2. Whose is this handkerchief? 

3. Whom {which or what) are you looking for? 

4. Whatever do you think you are doing? 

Exercise 

227. Insert in the blank spaces the proper form of 
the interrogative pronouns {who or whom ): 

1. -are expecting to invite? 

2. With-are you going? 

3. -did you take him for? 

4. -do you think it was? 

5. -do you expect to go with you? 

6. To-are you sending it? 

7. -and we believe. 

8. To-was he writing? 

9. -do you suppose they met? 

10. -does she look like? 

n. “-sent it?” he asked. 

12. -would you prefer to ask? 

228. “Who” and “Whom” in Indirect Questions — 

An indirect question is always in the form of a dependent 
clause. It presents a thought, not in the exact words 
of the original speaker, but as restated by another. 



136 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


Examples 

Direct Question: He asked, “What is that sound?” 
Indirect Question: He asked what that sound was. 


Exercise 

229. Distinguish between the relative pronouns and 
the interrogative pronouns in indirect questions in the 
following: 

1. He inquired what she was going to do. 

2. She was anxious to know whom we invited. 

3. “Who are you?” he asked. 

4. “To whom will you send it?” questioned her mother. 

5. Wilbur asked what magazine we were taking. 

6. “To which park shall we go?” asked one of our party. 

7. He asked who wrote it? 

8. “Whatever can we do for him?” sighed Margaret. 

9. “To whom did the sword Excalibur belong?” asked the 
teacher. 

10. To his question as to who would volunteer there was no 
reply. 

11. No one knew what would happen next. 

12. He could not decide what to do. 

230. Demonstrative Pronouns.—The pronouns this , 
that , these, and those are called demonstrative be¬ 
cause they point out something definitely. The use of 
these four words as pronouns should be distinguished 
from their use as adjectives. 

Pronouns: This is the boy I mentioned. 

Those are the best I could find. 

Adjectives: This boy is the one I mentioned. 

Those apples are the best I could find. 


PRONOUNS 


137 


Exercise 

231. Tell which demonstratives in the following 
sentences are pronouns and which are adjectives: 

1. This is my hat; that is yours. 

2. That is the Spanish fleet. 

3. That big square house was Emerson’s home. 

4. In that hour of deep contrition 
He beheld with clearer vision. 

5. Give this book to James. 

6. We saw those robins yesterday. 

7. That I cannot tell you. 

8. It is better to do without these things. 

9. Are you sure this is the right place? 

10. What’s in a name? That which we call a rose 
By any other name would smell as sweet. 

11. These are much larger roses than those. 

12. That which I saw was not the one. 

232. Indefinite Pronouns.—There is a large class of 
pronouns the function of which is to designate objects 
in a very general way. They are somewhat like the 
demonstratives, therefore. Several of them, too, serve 
both as pronouns and as adjectives. The common 
ones are the following: Anybody, everybody, nobody, 
anyone, everyone, no one, each one, each other, one 
another, some, few, such, either, most, and none. 

Examples 

Pronouns: Everybody was pleased with the prospect. 

Each went to his place without orders. 

One was taken, and another left. 

None were allowed to move. 


138 SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 

Adjectives: Each man went to his place without orders. 

Either boat will do for to-day. 

Few men are their own masters. 

Such things are uncommon. 

Exercise 

233. Point out the indefinite pronouns and the in¬ 
definite adjectives in the following sentences: 

1. I never saw such a tall man. 

2. As soon as the sermon is finished, nobody presumes to 
stir till Sir Roger is gone out of church. 

3. Several other of his peculiarities break out upon these 
occasions. 

4. Sometimes he stands up when everybody else is upon his 
knees. 

5. Among others, I observed a person of a tolerable good 
aspect. 

6. He was suspicious of everything that was said. 

7. One is moved by the fear of poverty, 

And the other by the shame of it. 

8. Every man has an active principle in him and will find 
something to employ himself with. 

9. Some monuments were plundered, some were mutilated, 
all were more or less outraged and dishonored. 

10. Other authors may write from the head but he writes 
from the heart. 

11. Few men were present. 

12. Either one will do. 

13. He can weep his sorrows with another’s eyes. 

14. Nobody mentioned it. 

15. Certain friends of ours were there. 

General Exercise A 

234. Parse the pronouns in the following sentences: 

1. To be or not to be, that is the question. 


PRONOUNS 


*39 


2. Many of those who came were from out of town. 

3. Other hope had she none. 

4. Neither would admit that he was wrong. 

5. But he who gives but a slender mite, 

And gives to that which is out of sight, 

That thread of the all-sustaining Beauty 
Which runs through all and doth all unite, 

The hand cannot clasp the whole of his alms. 

6. The little brook heard it and built a roof. 

7. I could not say what he was doing. 

8. He told us all about it. 

9. Earth gets its price for what earth gives us. 

10. Take whichever you like. 

11. Each of the children has peculiar traits. 

12. Give him that book. 

13. Ye crags and peaks, I’m with you once again. 

14. I could not say that it was he. 

15. They had few books in their library. 

16. To whom will you go for help. t 

17. I supposed it to be her. 

General Exercise B 

235. Insert the proper form of the pronoun in the 
blank spaces below. 

1. -shall I give the letter to (who, whom)? 

2. Mary is older than-(I, me). 

3. ——- does he think it could have been? (who, whom). 

4. It must have been-that you saw (her, she). 

5. It may have been-that you heard (we, us). 

6. I should never have imagined it to be-(he, him). 

7. -did you take her to be? (who, whom). 

8. We gave it to a man-we thought was your friend 

(who, whom). 

9. It seems that they, as well as-, had mistaken the 

house (we, us). 



140 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


io. They did not fare any better than-(we, us). 

n. Frank and-soon began to quarrel (he, him). 

12. She is older than-(I, me). 

13. It was not-that gave it to me (he, him). 

14. How could anyone get such an idea into - head? 

(his, their). 

15. Nearly every man present offered-help (his, their). 

16. The man-we thought was-appeared to be a 

stranger (who, whom, his, him). 








CHAPTER XI 


Adjectives and Adjective Equivalents 

236. The Function of Adjectives.—Sometimes, just 
to name an object is all that is needed. Often, how¬ 
ever, it is necessary, in order to designate it definitely, 
that we join with it some other word or words. These 
words may give some quality of the object; they may 
indicate which, how many, or how much; they may ap¬ 
ply a particular name to the noun, or they may point 
it out or designate it much as pronouns do. 

237. The Classes of Adjectives.—There are, if we 
classify them according to their uses, two general 
classes of adjectives,—the descriptive and the limit¬ 
ing. The former has to do with the qualities of things, 
their appearance, and the like. The latter points out 
which thing is referred to, or how many are to be con¬ 
sidered. 

238. Limiting Adjectives.—There are four kinds of 
limiting, or demonstrative, adjectives, as follows: 

The Articles: There is a new book on the table. 

Proper: European institutions were transplanted to 

American soil. 

Numeral: There are several men in the first row. 

Pronominal: This chair is of their make. 

Exercise A 

239. Make the nouns in the following sentences 
more definite by inserting descriptive modifiers in the 
blank spaces: 


142 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


1. There was-tree at the corner of the-house. 

2. One of the-things you will learn there, is that you 

are not-the person to be considered. 

3. On a-morning we made our first trip up the 

mountain. 

4. The trees in autumn are-and-and-. 

5. What do you think of my-dress? 

6. Where did you get that-book? 

7. There is an-mill on the bank ot the-stream. 

8. We had a-drink of water out of the-cup hanging 

on the pump. 

9. What did you do with that-pencil I gave you? 

10. Have you seen that-picture in the- 

museum. 

11. He was driving a-team of-horses. 

12. His home was an-mansion which stood in a 

-grove of-trees. 

13. The day was very-and-and we spent most of 

our time on the-veranda. 

14. He saw a-animal run into the-underbrush. 

15. A-lawn surrounded the-house. 

16. A-child ran to meet him and threw her- 

arms around his neck. 


Exercise B 

240. Supply limiting adjectives, sometimes called 
adjectives of quantity, in the following sentences: 

1. You will find it in the-side of the house. 

2. I did not think that there were so-people lived in 

those-houses. 

3. It will give me-pleasure to go to the concert with 

you. 

4. How-people do you think will come? 

5. -books shall I bring? 

6. -paper have you now in stock? 





































ADJECTIVES AND ADJECTIVE EQUIVALENTS 143 


7. -profit is to be expected this year. 

8. Please send me-dozen pencils. 

9. The caravan disappeared behind-mountain? 

10. I have-work to last all week. 

11. -men could do so-work in a day as he can. 

12. How-apples did you buy. 

Exercise C 

241. By supplying proper adjectives or pronominal 

adjectives, make the nouns definite in the following 
sentences: a , 

1. The-constitution has been amended several times. 

2. -man is the first I have seen here this season. 

3. We did not know the-name for the dish. 

4. -friends have taken the-steamship line on the 

return trip. 

5. It is the custom of the-women to carry-babies 

on-backs. 

6. I have been studying --grammar during all of- 

week. 

7. The subject of my-lecture was-history. 

8. He was the last man I expected to see. 

9. He has-friends on whom he can depend. 

10. I do not care for-kind of people. 

11. -plan will be satisfactory to me. 

12. Customs are much changed in-days. 

13. In the-corner of the room stood a table of-oak. 

14. -pupil will be expected to be present on-Monday 

15. The-exertion brings on a violent fit of coughing. 

16. The-block is built up with-houses. 

242. Adjectives as Nouns.—Often it becomes con¬ 
venient to use adjectives, with or without the definite 
article, just as a noun would be used. In such cases, 
the words perform the functions of nouns and drop 


144 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


their adjective functions entirely. They must, there¬ 
fore, be regarded as nouns. 

Examples 

1. And young and old came forth to play. 

On a sunshine holiday. 

2. He sought the beautiful in all things. 

243. The Comparison of Adjectives. —We have seen 
that it is the business of one class of adjectives to ex¬ 
press the idea of quantity with respect to nouns. Now, 
adjectives are compared to indicate the amount or de¬ 
gree or quantity attributed to nouns. Adjectives are 
compared in three different ways: 

1. By adding er and est. 

2. By prefixing the adverbs more, most, less, least. 

3. By entire change of word. 

244. The Use of the Comparative Degree. —The 

comparative degree is used when only two things are 
compared. One has a larger amount or degree of the 
quality expressed by the adjective than the other has. 

Examples 

1. John is taller than I. 

2. Mary is the taller girl of the two. 

245. The Use of the Superlative Degree. —The 

superlative degree is used when one object is compared 
with more than one other object, possibly with all 
others. It indicates that the one object has the qual¬ 
ity in the highest or lowest degree. 


ADJECTIVES AND ADJECTIVE EQUIVALENTS 145 


Examples 

1. This is the most beautiful thing in the world. 

2. Jack is the strongest of the three. 

246. Irregular Comparison of Adjectives.—The fol¬ 
lowing adjectives are compared irregularly: 


Positive 
bad ) 
evil [ 
ill ) 
far 

good l 
well f 

fore 


late 

little 
many J. 
much ? 

near 


old 


Comparative 

worse 

farther 

better 

former 

j later 
\ latter 
less 

more 

nearer 

) older 
\ elder 


Superlative 

worst 

farthest 

best 

S foremost 
( first 
3 latest 
\ last 
least 

most 

nearest 
next 
1 oldest 
1 eldest 


A few words now used only as adverbs or preposi¬ 
tions in the positive degree are used adjectively in the 
comparative and superlative degrees. 


Positive 

(forth) 

(in) 


(out) 


(up) 


Comparative 

further 

inner 

outer 
utter 

upper 


Superlative 

furthest 
innermost 
inmost 
outmost 
j outermost 
1 utmost 
l uttermost 
upmost 
uppermost 


i 4 6 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


Exercise 

247. Pick out all the adjectives in the following sen¬ 
tences, tell to what class each belongs, and give the 
comparison of such as can be compared: 

1. The hills 
Rock-ribbed and ancient as the sun; the vales 
Stretching in pensive quietness between; 

The venerable woods; rivers that move 

In majesty; and the complaining brooks 

That make the meadows green; and, poured round all, 

Old Ocean’s gray and melancholy waste,— 

Are but the solemn decorations all 
Of the great tomb of man. 

2. The melancholy days are come, the saddest of the year, 
Of wailing winds, and naked woods, and meadows brown 

and sere. 

3. Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight, 

And all the air a solemn stillness holds. 

4. Let not Ambition mock their useful toil, 

Their homely joys, and destiny obscure. 

5. The innocent brightness of a new-born day 

Is lovely yet. 

6. This ancient silver bowl of mine,—it tells of good old 

times. 

7. Three fishers went sailing away to the west. 

8. Thrice happy he, who by some shady grove, 

Far from the clamorous world, doth live his own; 
Though solitary, who is not alone, 

But doth converse with that eternal Love. 

9. ’Tis the last rose of summer. 

10. Oft in the stilly night, 

Ere Slumber’s chain has bound me, 

Fond Mem’ry brings the light 
Of other days around me. 


ADJECTIVES AND ADJECTIVE EQUIVALENTS 147 

11. I feel like one, 

Who treads alone 
Some banquet hall deserted, 

Whose lights are fled, 

Whose garlands dead. 

12. Those evening bells! those evening bells! 

How many a tale their music tells! 

13. Much harm may be done by a few thoughtless words. 

14. He believes whatever idle rumors he may hear. 

15. There are many old people who have very few things to 

live for. 

248. Adjective Equivalents.—In a previous chapter 
we learned that there were several kinds of modifiers 
of nouns. All such modifiers perform the same general 
functions; and are, therefore, equivalents. The var¬ 
ious adjective equivalents are the following: 

1. A noun in the possessive case. 

Example: There lies Harry’s pencil 

2. A noun appositive. 

Example: Charles, the newsbop, is ill. 

It equals: Newsboy Charles is ill. 

3. A prepositional phrase. 

Example: The story of the accident is well known. 

4. An infinite phrase. 

Example: His determination to succeed was boundless. 

5. A participial phrase. 

Example: The girl doing the writing is the best in the class. 

6. A dependent clause. 

Example: The purse which I found was his. 

Note.—Words, though usually other parts of speech, 
which are used as direct modifiers of nouns are not ad¬ 
jective equivalents. They are real adjectives; thus— 
A wood fire, the down train, a seaward breeze. 


148 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


Exercise A 

249. Point out all the adjective equivalents in the 
following sentences, and explain what each is: 

1. In my Father’s house are many mansions. 

2. Edison, the inventor, is very absent-minded. 

3. He is a man of wonderful ability. 

4. The boy sitting at the right is John. 

5. His ability to control himself made it possible for him to 
control others. 

6. The building on the hill is my uncle’s factory. 

7. He told me the story of his life. 

8. The story which he wrote for the magazine was accepted. 

9. The bird sitting on the limb is a robin. 

10. His plan to go south for the winter had to be given up. 

11. But the jingling of the guinea helps the hurt that Honor 

feels. 

12. “Eyes,” he said, “now throbbing through me! 

Are ye eyes that did undo me?” 

13. ’Tis midnight’s holy hour. 

14. But the tender grace of a day that is dead 

Will never come back to me. 

15. A soldier of the Legion lay dying in Algiers, 

There was lack of woman’s nursing, there was dearth of 
woman’s tears. 

16. Not a full blushing goblet could tempt me to leave it, 
Though filled with the nectar that Jupiter sips. 

Exercise B 

250. Make the following sentences clearer, more 
natural, or more definite by changing the italicized 
words to adjective equivalents; thus,— 

Not good: The pickling cucumbers are in that basket. 

Good: The cucumbers for pickling are in that basket. 


ADJECTIVES AND ADJECTIVE EQUIVALENTS 149 


1. Preserving pears should be smaller than these. 

2. The mountainside road is steep but much shorter than 
the valley road. 

3. Messenger-boy James was hurt in a railway accident 

yesterday. 

4. The standing pupils may be seated. 

5. The girl passing is my oldest sister. 

6. Here is plenty of washing water. 

7. The woods path is shady but rough. 

8. Cooking apples are very scarce. 

9. I want some good eating peaches. 

10. The neighborhood farms are all well improved. 

11. The Manhattan Borough water supply comes from the 

Croton River. 

12. The Cats kill Mountains summer hotels are very numerous. 

13. He has written a great many western life stories. 

14. I am studying up on a subject very interesting to me. 

15. He is a very peculiar appearing man. 

251. The Parsing of the Adjective.—To parse an 
adjective it is necessary to tell,— 

1. Its class. 

2. Its comparison. 

3. Its use (i.e, syntax). 


CHAPTER XII 


The Verb 

252. The Function of the Verb.—The verb is a 
word or group of words the function of which is to 
state, or predicate, action or state of being with re¬ 
spect to something. The power that verbs have in 
asserting varies greatly. Some simply express action 
as taking place. The verb went , for example, simply 
states that an action took place. Rushed , on the other 
hand, not only asserts the act of moving from one 
place to another, but it also describes the manner of 
the action. Therefore, we see that some verbs assert 
much more than others. In our composition work 
we should select the verbs that assert most completely 
what we wish to express. 

253. Classes of Verbs.—Verbs are classified ac¬ 
cording to kind of assertion they make, as transitive 
or intransitive. 

A transitive verb is a verb that takes a direct object to com¬ 
plete its meaning. It is called transitive , because the action 
passes over to the object. The subject of a transitive verb acts 
upon the object, or, in the passive voice, is acted upon by- 
somebody or something. 

An intransitive verb is a verb that denotes action or state 
of being which is concerned only with the subject. The action 
of the subject is not expressed as passing over to or as affecting 
anything else. 


THE VERB 


*5* 


Examples 

Transitive: i. Mary bought a basket. 

2. Birds have built their nests in the tree. 

Intransitive: i. Mary grows. 

2. Birds fly. 

254. Verbs Transitive or Intransitive.—Some verbs 
have both the transitive and intransitive uses. Some¬ 
times they express action as complete without affect¬ 
ing any thing else; and sometimes they denote the 
action as affecting some object. 


Examples 

Transitive: All wore garlands in their hair. 
Intransitive: They wore well. 

Transitive: Helen has passed the others. 
Intransitive: The procession has passed. 


255. Verbs Often Confused—There are a few verbs 
similar in spelling, and somewhat alike in meaning, 
which should be carefully distinguished* One of each 


of these pairs of words i: 
transitive. 

Transitive 

1. lay, laid, laid. 

2. raise, raised, raised. 

3. set, set, set. 


transitive and the other is in- 

Intransitive 

1. lie, lay, lain. 

2. rise, rose, risen. 

3. sit, sat, sat. 


Exercise 

256. Insert the proper words in the blank spaces 
in the following sentences, and explain why you select 
the word you do: 


J 5 2 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


1. What book is that-on the table (lying, laying)? 

2. I-down to sleep (laid, lay). 

3. The coat does not-well (sit, set). 

4. The rain has-the dust (laid, lain). 

5. Do your daughter’s talents-in that direction (lie, lay)? 

6 . They-him from the floor (raised, rose). 

7. He is-(raised, risen). 

8. She has-the jar down (set, sat). 

9. The sun-out of the sea (rose, raised). 

10. He-his arm (raised, rose). 

11. She is-by the window (sitting, setting). 

12. The vase-on the table (sits, sets). 

13. The dog-by his master (sat, set). 

14. Do you care to-down (lie, lay)? 

15. Who left his books-on the desk (lying, laying)? 

16. So all night long he-among the reeds and heard the 

waters rippling on the shore (lay, laid). 

17. He had-down; his arm-limp upon the arm of 

the chair (sat, set; lay, laid). 

18. She-up until very late (sat, set). 

19. The carpenter is - the stones for the wall (laying, 

lying). 

20. The aeroplane - slowly from the ground (raised, 

rose). 

257. Copulative Verbs. —There is a small class of 
intransitive verbs that do not express action on the 
part of the subject. Their service in the sentence is 
almost like that of a conjunction. They serve to 
couple two ideas, and are therefore called - copulative 
verbs. 

Examples 

1. Harrison was President. 

2. Harrison became President. 

3. Harrison remained President four years. 

4. Harrison seemed (or appeared) to be a good President. 



THE VERB 


153 


258. The Complement of Copulative Verbs.—All 

copulative verbs must be followed by a subjective 
complement. The complement may be a noun or 
pronoun, an adjective, a phrase, a clause, an infinitive, 
or a participle. But whatever it is, it refers to the 
subject. 

Examples 

1. He was of Scotch descent. 

2. He feels ill. 

3. He became what he wished. 

4. He appeared to tremble. 

5. He seemed trembling. 

6 . He became a carpenter. 

7. This is he. 

259. Inflection of the Verb.—The verb undergoes 
a number of changes to indicate person, number, tense, 
and mood. These changes are not so numerous as 
they were in the early development of the language. 
It is important, however, that we know what these 
changes in the verb are, so that we may write and 
speak correctly. 

260. Person and Number.—Any given tense of the 
verb is inflected to agree with the person and number 
of the subject. 

Present Tense 

I work We work I speak We speak 

Thou workest You work Thou speakest You speak 

He works They work He speaks They speak 

An examination of the foregoing, will show that the 
only changes in the form of the verb in this tense are 
in the second and third persons singular in regular 
verbs. But examine the present tense of be: 


i54 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


Present Tense 

I am We are 

Thou art You are 

He is They are 

261. Agreement of Subject and Verb. —There are 
certain rules about the agreement of subject and verb 
that should be borne in mind. 

1. A compound subject which contains a double idea takes 
a plural verb. 

Example: Rich and poor fare alike. 

2. A compound subject which contains only a single idea 
takes a singular subject. 

Example: Wherein doth sit the dread and fear of kings. 

3. When the parts of a compound subject, connected by 
or or nor differ in number, the verb agrees with the nearer one. 

Example: He or they are correct. 

4. If such subjects differ also in person, it is better to repeat 
the verb. 

Example: They or I am in the wrong (poor). 

They are in the wrong or I am. 

5. An intervening noun of different number should not 
disturb the agreement of subject and predicate. 

Example: The consumption of such beverages as tea and 
coffee has (not have) wonderfully increased. 

Exercise 

262. Tell which of the words in parentheses in the 
following sentences is the correct one to use, and ex¬ 
plain why: 

1. - not the Danube and the Rhine noted for their 

scenery (is, are)? 

2. The chirping of the sparrows - the early dawn 

(announces, announce). 


THE VERB 


155 

in the 


3. James, in company with his two friends, - 

city (is, are). 

4. All work and no play - Jack a dull boy (make, 

makes). 

5. James and his two friends-- in town (is, are). 

6. You or I-wrong (are, am). 

7. The grief and suffering of the man-hard to see 

(was, were). 

8. He and she-late (was, were). 

9. Love, and love only-the loan for love (is, are). 

10. The games, and not his work-- his mind (occupy, 

occupies). 

11. You and he-planning a delightful trip (are, is). 

12. The strong and the weak alike-forced to work* 

(were, was). 

13. Three thousand a year-a good salary (is, are). 

14. A number of people-waiting (was, were). 

15. Mental and physical activity-necessary for proper 

development (is, are). 

16. A laggard in love and a dastard in war-to wed the 

fair Ellen of brave Lochinvar (was, were). 

263. Tenses of the Verb.—Verbs change their in¬ 
flections to indicate the time of the action expressed. 
They may refer to present time, to past time, or to 
future time. The tenses that indicate the time when 
actions take place are called present, past , and future 
tenses. If the action is represented as having been 
completed at the time referred to, the tense is called 
present • perfect , past perfect, or future perfect . 

264. The Formation of the Past Tense.—The past 
tense of verbs is formed in two ways. The regular 
verbs, sometimes called weak verbs, add d or ed to the 
infinitive. The irregular, or strong verbs, usually 
undergo a change in the stem vowel. A few verbs now 


156 SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 

have both forms for the past tense; and a few undergo 
other changes besides those mentioned. 

Past Tense 

Singular Plural Singular Plural 

I worked. We ) I spoke We ) 

Thou workest. You > worked. Thou spokest. You >■ spoke. 

He worked. They ) He spoke. They) 

265. The Principal Parts of Verbs.—The principal 
parts of verbs are those parts from which all other 
parts are formed. They consist of the present tense 
(first person), the present participle, the past tense, 
and the past participle. We may, as some people do, 
omit the present participle from the list of principal 
parts, because it is always formed by adding ing to the 
present tense. 

Examples 


Present 

Past Tense 

Pres. Part. 

Past Part. 

work 

worked 

working 

worked 

speak 

spoke 

speaking 

spoken 

go 

went 

going 

gone 


266. Rules for Forming the Present Participle.—- 

In adding the ing to the present tense to form the 
present participle three rules must be kept in mind. 

1. The Dropping of Final e. —In adding ing to words ending 
in e , the final e is dropped, except in a few words, like singe, 
which retains the e (singeing) as a mark to distinguish it from 
singing. 

2. The Doubling of Final Consonants. —In monosyllables 
ending in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, the 
final consonant is doubled before adding ing. 


THE VERB 


I 57 


This rule applies to words of more than one syllable accented 
on the last, and to compounds of monosyllables, whether 
accented on the last syllable or not. 

3. Changing ie to y .—Verbs ending in ie change ie to y 
before adding the ing. 


Examples 


say ing 

hid (e) ing 

stop ping 

die 

do ing 

ho (e) ing 

sit ting 

dying 

speak ing 

cring (e) ing 

dig ging 

lie 

sleep ing 

sing (e) ing 

bob bing 

lying 


267. Irregular, or Strong, Verbs.—The irregular 
verbs form not only the past tense by changing the 
stem vowel, but also form the past participle in the 
same way. The change to form the participle is often 
different from that to form the past tense: whereas 
regular verbs form past tense and past participle alike. 
The verbs of this class that need attention are the 
following: 


Present 

Past 

Past Participle 

abide 

abode 

abode 

arise 

arose 

arisen 

bear 

) bore 
\ bare 

born 

bear (to carry) 

^ bore 
\ bare 

borne 

beat 

beat 

3 beaten 
/ beat 

bereave 

bereft 

bereft 

beseech 

besought 

besought 

bid 

bid, bade 

bidden, bid 

break 

broke 

broken 

breed 

bred 

bred 

burst 

burst 

burst 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


158 


Present 

Past 

Past Participle 

buy 

bought 

bought 

chide 

chid 

< chidden 
t chid 


( clove 

j cloven 
( cleft 

cleave (to split) 

< cleft 
(clave 

cling 

clung 

clung 

clothe 

clad 

clad 

dare 

durst 

dared 

deal 

dealt 

dealt 

dig 

dug 

dug 

drink 

drank 

\ drank 
f drunk 

drive 

drove 

driven 

eat 

ate 

eaten 

flee 

fled 

fled 

fly 

flew 

flown 

forsake 

forsook 

forsaken 

freeze 

froze 

frozen 

hide 

hid 

hidden, hid 

know 

knew 

known 

lay 

laid 

laid 

lead 

led 

led 

lie (recline) 

lay 

lain 

read 

read 

read 

rend 

rent 

rent 

rid 

rid 

ridden 

run 

ran 

run 

shake 

shook 

shaken 

shine 

shone 

shone 

shoe 

shod 

shod 

shrink 

shrunk 

shrunk 

sing 

sang 

sung 

sink 

sank 

sunk 

sit 

sat 

sat 

slay 

slew 

slain 


THE VERB 


159 


Present 

Past 

Past Parties 

sling 

slung 

slung 

slink 

slunk 

slunk 

smite 

smote 

smitten 

spin 

spun 

spun 

spit 

spit 

spit 

split 

split 

split 

spring 

sprang 

sprung 

steal 

stole 

stolen 

sting 

stung 

stung 

strew 

strewed 

strewn 

stride 

strode 

stridden 

strive 

strove 

striven 

swim 

swam 

swum 

swing 

swung 

swung 

wring 

wrung 

wrung 

write 

wrote 

written 


268. Insert the proper form of the verb in the 
blank spaces in the following sentences: 

1. Mary has been-and-all day (hop, skip). 

2. The condition of things is-rapidly (change). 

3. The boat was-about on the water (bob). 

4. The fire was slowly-out (die). 

5. The man was-his garden (hoe). 

6. The man was-from view (hide). 

7. The soldier-before the enemy (flee). 

8. The fire was-the leaves on the trees (singe). 

9. He-from the house (stride). 

10. The thief-out softly (steal). 

11. The lake was-over (freeze). 

12. The waves-and-(rise, fall). 

13. He was continually-his work (stop). 

14. She-the wrong one (choose). 

15. He-the food that was placed before him (eat). 

16. She-him go at once (bid). 




















i6o 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


17. The boy-his old friends (forsake). 

18. The captain-the way (lead). 

19. Loud peals of thunder-the air (rend). 

20. The birds-away to build their nests (fly). 

21. They have not-for a long time (write). 

269. The Future Tense.—All the tenses of the verb 
are simple and liable to little misuse, except the future. 
In this tense, the uses of shall and will need to be 
carefully distinguished. These uses may be summar¬ 
ized as follows: 

1. Shall is used in the first person, and will in the second 
and third persons to express simple futurity of action or con¬ 
dition. 

2. Will is used in the first person to express determination 
in the form of (1) a resolution, or (2) a promise. 

3. Shall is used in the second and third persons to express 
determination on the part of the speaker in the form of (1) 
a threat, (2) a command, or (3) a promise. 

4. In direct questions,— 

In the first person shall is always used. 

In the second and third persons, either shall or will is used 
according to the answer expected. 

5. In independent clauses which represent quotations, 
the shall or will of the original statement is preserved. 

6. Will is used in any person to express willingness or con¬ 
sent. 

7. Shall is used in any person to express obligation. 


Exercise 

270. Insert shall or will in the blanks in the follow¬ 
ing sentences, and give the reason for your selection 
of each: 


THE VERB 


161 


i. If they do not come, we-be disappointed. 

• 2. Who-say that he is not right? 

3. I fear she-not be able to go. 

4. You-have a pleasant day for the ride. 

5. You-report at once. 

6. I-- meet you Monday morning. 

7. I-insist on your coming. 

8. You-have one to-morrow. 

9. When-we then meet again? 

10. He-regret his action. 

11. -we have time to call for them? 

12. I-go and nobody-prevent me. 

13. He says that he-leave next month. 

14. -you go? I-go. 

15. -he go? He-not go. 

16. A house founded on a rock-last. 

17. You-me then to read the will. 

18. I-shoot if you move. 

10. I am determined that they-not hear. 

20. The time-come when I-withdraw the offer. 

271. The Perfect Tenses.—The present perfect, 
the past perfect, and the future perfect tenses, which 
represent completed action in present, past, or future 
tense, are formed by perfixing the present, past, or 
future tenses of the auxiliary verb have to the past 
participle of the notional verb. 

Examples 

Present Perfect: I have worked 
Past Perfect: I had worked 
Future Perfect: I shall have worked 

272. Auxiliary Verbs and Notional Verbs.—No¬ 
tional verbs are the verbs that express the idea of 


I have spoken 
I had spoken 
I shall have spoken 


162 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


action or state of being desired. Auxiliary verbs are 
the verbs that are used to help notional verbs express 
their meaning. They may help express the action as 
going on, as emphatic, as completed, as customary; 
or they may help to express the action as affecting the - 
subject instead of an object (passive voice.) 

273. The Progressive Tense Forms.—Sometimes 
we wish to emphasize the progressive nature of the 
action of the verb. Something is, was, or will be 
going on; or, something has been, had been, or will 
have been going on. This is called the progressive 
form, and is made by prefixing the proper tense of the 
auxiliary verb be to the present participle of the no¬ 
tional verb. 


Examples 

Present: I am working. 

Past: I was working. 

Future: I shall be working. 

Pres. Perfect: I have been working. 

Past Perfect: I had been working. 

Put. Perfect: I shall have been working. 


I am speaking. 

I was speaking. 

I shall be speaking. 

I have been speaking. 

I had been speaking. 

I shall have been speak¬ 
ing. 


274. The Intensive Tense Forms.—Sometimes we 
wish to emphasize the fact that a certain action really 
does, did, or shall take place, or that the action is 
accustomed to take place. This intensive form is used 
only in the present, past, and future tenses. The 
present and past tenses of do are prefixed to the pres¬ 
ent infinitive of the notional verb, to form the present 
and past tenses; and will is prefixed to the infinitive 
of the notional verb to form the first person, and shall 


THE VERB 


163 


to form the second and third persons, of the future 
tense. 


Present: 

Past: 

Future: 


Examples 

I do work. 

I did work. 

I will work. 

You shall work. 

He shall work. 


I do speak. 

I did speak. 

I will speak. 

You shall speak. 
He shall speak. 


275. The Interrogative Forms.—The interrogative 
forms of the tenses of the verb denoting incomplete 
action, are formed in the same way as the in¬ 
tensive forms, except that the auxiliaries do, did, 
shall and will are placed before the pronoun. In the 
interrogative forms of the perfect tenses the auxil¬ 
iaries have, has, had, shall, and will are placed before 
the subject noun or pronoun. 


Examples 


Present: Does he work? 
Past: Did he work? 

Future: Shall I work? 
Will he work? 


Pres. Perfect: Has he worked? 

Past Perfect: Had he worked? 

Fut. Perfect: Shall I have worked? 

Will he have worked? 


276. Uses of the Simple Present Tense.—The 

present tense has several uses. They are the follow¬ 
ing: 

1. To denote action as going on during a period of time in¬ 
cluding the present, or as accustomary. 

Examples 

Margaret is in college this year. 

Mr. Harvey sings in the choir. 

Health is an essential of happiness. 


164 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


2. As a substitute'for the progressive form. 

Examples 

I hear (am hearing) thunder. _ 

He feels (is feeling) ill. 

3. To denote future time. 

Examples | 4 

Mr. Smith comes to-morrow. 

Henry Irving plays here next week. 

4. To narrate past events vividly. This use is called the 
historical present. 

Examples 

1. Napoleon orders the charge, and the battle is won. 

2. At this news, Washington retreats under cover of dark¬ 
ness. 

Exercise 

277. Explain the difference in meaning between the 
pairs of verb forms in the following sentences: 

1. Mary reads (is reading) well. 

2. The boys are going (have gone) fishing. 

3. He shall (will) do as I say. 

4. She always goes (is going) to see her friends. 

5. We looked (were looking) for you Tuesday. 

6. I study (am studying) English. 

7. I wrote (had written, was writing) the note when father 
came. 

8. I have ridden (have been riding) for two hours. 

9. She has heard (has been hearing) from them. 

10. We will (shall) be there on time. 

11. He shall (will) not go. 

12. She always comes (is coming) early. 

13. He speaks (is speaking) clearly. 


THE VERB 


' 165 

14. The sun shone (was shining) brightly. 

15. They lived (have lived) there several years. 

16. She knew (has known) him many years. 

17. My friend goes (is going) to Europe next summer. 

18. Coleridge portrays (portrayed) scenes vividly. 

19. They were going (went) to the city yesterday. 

20. He will (shall) be pleased to go. 

278. The Modes of Verbs.—Verbs not only express 
the time of an action, but also indicate the manner 
in which the action is to be regarded. Sometimes we 
wish an assertion to be understood as true, and we 
state it as an actual fact. Sometimes we wish the 
statement to be looked upon as a possibility, and we 
make the assertion doubtfully, or with reservation. 
At other times we do not make a statement of a fact, 
but we command someone to do something. State¬ 
ments are made therefore, from three view points. 
We call these different view points modes. 

The indicative mode states something as true; the 
subjunctive mode states something as thought of; 
the imperative mode expresses a command. 

Examples 

Indicative: William departed yesterday. 

Subjunctive: If he were here, I could go. 

Imperative: Bring the papers to me. 

279. The Form of the Subjunctive.—The form of 
the subjunctive differs from the indicative only in the 
second and third persons singular. The subjunctive 
form of these persons is like that of the first person. 
The verb be is the only one that has different forms 
for the subjunctive. 


166 * 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


Examples 


Indicative Present 
I am We are 

Thou art You are 

He is They are 

Indicative Past 
I was We were 

Thou wast You were 

He was They were 

Indicative Present 
I go We go 

Thou goest You go 

He goes They go 

Indicative Past 
I went We went 

Thou wentest You went 
He went They went 


Subjunctive Present 
I be We be 

Thou be You be 

He be They be 

Subjunctive Past 
I were We were 

Thou were You were 

He were They were 

Subjunctive Present 
I go We go 

Thou go You go 

He go They go 

Subjunctive Past 
I went We went 

Thou went You went 

He went They went 


280. Uses of the Subjunctive.—We have said that 
the subjunctive mode views action or state of being 
as thought of. There are several slightly different 
ways in which action may be thought of. The purpose 
of this mode is to indicate doubt or uncertainty in the 
speaker’s mind. It may also state a mere supposition, 
something contrary to fact, either in the form of a 
wish or a condition. To summarize, we may say that 
the subjunctive mode is used,— 

1. In statements with respect to possible or doubtful future 
events. 

Example: Go before it be too late. 


THE VERB 167 

2. In clauses following verbs of wishing, requesting, demand¬ 
ing, commanding, etc. 

Example: He requests that she come at once. 

3. In conditions contrary to fact or regarded as uncertain. 

Example: If I were he, I would try it. 

4. In conclusions following conditions that are contrary to 
fact or regarded as uncertain. 

Example: If I were he, I would try it. 

5. In clauses expressing purpose. 

Example: Hurry, lest you be late. 

Exercise A 

281. Explain whether the verbs in the following 
sentences are in the indicative or the subjunctive 
mode; that is, explain how the statement is to be re¬ 
garded : 

1. Though he be poor, he is not destitute. 

2. They require that he appear in person. 

3. If thine eye offend thee, pluck it out. 

4. If father comes in time, we shall be able to take the 
eight o’clock train. 

5. It were better for him that a millstone were hanged 
about his neck, and he be cast into the sea. 

6. I wish I were there now. 

7. Though he be richer than Croesus, his wealth shall not 
save him. 

8. Though he were my enemy I would reward him. 

9. I ask that he be allowed to join. 

10. Had you come yesterday, I could have met you. 

11. Let the truth spread till it reach every land. 

12. Should he succeed, he would not be satisfied. 

13. Would that I might be with you! 

14. If it were true, it should not trouble you. 

15. If he had failed, we could not have blamed him. 

16. Help him lest he fall. 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


168 


Exercise B 

282. Insert the proper form of the verb in the blank 
spaces below, and explain the manner in which each 
statement is to be viewed. 

1. We insist that he-as he promised (do). 

2. If he-, he may rise again (fall). 

3. They insist that he-at once (start). 

4. I will know 

If there - any faith in man (be). j 

5. I wish it-not my duty to go (be). 

6. If this-, whither shall we turn (fail). 

7. If she-, all will be well (come). 

8. Though he-his best, he cannot succeed (do). 

9. Watch carefully lest he-you (strike). 

10. I ordered that he-at once (send). 

11. What can you do, if you-health (lose). 

12. If the day-fair, we shall continue our journey (be). 

13. Let us hope that he-rightly (chose). 

14. Whether he-or not, does not concern us (go). 

15. If anything-, let us know (lack). 

283. The Imperative Mode.—The imperative mode 
expresses commands, advice, or entreaties, and is al¬ 
ways addressed to someone; hence, is in the second 
person. 

Examples 

Command: Go at once. 

Advice: To thine own self be true. 

Entreaty: Have pity upon our distress. 

284. The Voice of Verbs.—There are certain verbs 
which have the power of showing either that the sub¬ 
ject is acting upon something, or is being acted upon 


THE VERB 


169' 


by something. In one case the subject is active; that 
is, is doing the acting. In the other case, the subject 
is passive; that is, is not acting, but is simply being 
acted upon. 

The form of the verb that denotes the subject as 
acting is called the active voice; and the form that 
denotes the subject as being acted upon is called the 
passive voice: 

Examples 

Active: The ball struck Henry. 

Passive: Henry was struck by the ball. 

Active: Fire had destroyed all their supplies. 

Passive: All their supplies had been destroyed by fire. 


285. The Formation of the Passive Voice.—The 

various tenses of the passive voice are formed by pre¬ 
fixing the corresponding tense of the verb be to the 
past participle of the notional verb. 


Examples 


Present: 

Past: 

Future: 

Pres. Perfect: 
Past Perfect: 
Future Perfect: 


Active 
I see 
I saw 
I shall see 
I have seen 
I had seen 
I shall have seen 


Passive 
I am seen 
I was seen 
I shall be seen 
I have been seen 
I had been seen 
I shall have been seen 


286. Explain the voice of the verbs in the following 
sentences, and reconstruct them so that the voice of . 
each will be changed: 

1. She sent the flowers. 

2. He mentioned the return of King Richard. 

3. I heard the notes of the organ. 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


170 

4. The resolution was no sooner formed than put in execu¬ 
tion. 

5. I have received the assurance of the author’s approval. 

6. The dance was a cause of almost open war. 

7. They approached the fort. 

8. The stag was warned by the dogs. 

9. The enemy surrounded him. 

10. They told me a boy would be sent for the letters. 

11. The sun tanned them. 

12. The river reflected the clear blue of the sky. 

13. The noblest scenes of the earth can be seen and known 
but by few. 

14. They saw Helen coming to the tower. 

15. Bruce commanded the men to move on. 

287. Verbals. —There are two parts of the verb, the 
infinitive and the participle, that partake of the nature 
of other parts of speech at the same time that they 
retain part of their verb functions. They do not have 
the power of asserting, but they may take objects and 
adverbial modifiers. 

Examples 

Infinitive: To sing well is pleasant. 

Participle: Singing is an accomplishment. 

Infinitive: He likes to sing. 

Participle: He likes singing. 

Infinitive: To find fault is easy. 

Participle: Finding fault is easy. 

Infinitive: I desire to hear what he has to say. 

Participle: There is no objection to our hearing what he has 
to say. 

288. The Uses of the Infinitive. —There are many 
uses of the infinitive. They may be summarized as 
follows: 


THE VERB 


171 


A. Noun uses. 

1. As subject. 

2. As subjective complement. 

3. As object complement. 

4. As objective complement. 

5. As object of preposition. 

B. Adjective uses. 

1. As modifiers of a noun. 

2. As subjective complement. 

3. As objective complement. 

C. Adverb uses. 

1. To modify a verb. 

2. To modify an adjective. 

3. To modify an adverb. 

Exercise 

289. Explain the uses of the various infinitives in 
the following sentences: 

1. There is enough to eat. 

2. There was no choice but to go. 

3. They had desired him to be present. 

4. It is easy to find fault. 

5. Men to work could not be found. 

6. He ordered them to approach. 

7. She refused to go. 

8. They chose him to row. 

9. There was not a house to be sold. 

10. They did not know what to do. 

11. They went to see the cathedral. 

12. James had a desire to excel. 

13. They were preparing to attack this stout repast. 

14. I moved forward to get a better view. 

15. To discuss all this then was impossible. 

16. I was pleased to see their fondness for their pets. 


172 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


17. We saw him fall. 

18. They could do nothing but walk. 

19. To cease to try is to fail. 

20. To do a thing well is worth while. 

21. Theirs not to question why. 

22. It is not easy for a man to speak of his own works. 

23. He is to be sent home. 

24. They refused her permission to go. 

25. The ship was about to sink. 

290. The Uses of the Participle. —The participle, 
like the infinitive, cannot assert anything; but it may 
take complements and adverbial modifiers like a verb. 
The various uses of the participle may be summarized 
as follows: 

A. Noun uses. 

1. As subject. 

2. As subjective complement. 

3. As object complement. 

4. As object of a preposition. 

B. Adjective uses. 

1. As modifiers of noun or pronoun. 

2. As subjective complement. 

3. As objective complement. 

Exercise A 

291. Explain the uses of the participle in the fol¬ 
lowing sentences: 

1. The ground being wet, it was impossible to play. 

2. We stood there watching the game. 

3. He felt himself sinking. 

4. Having filled their baskets, they returned. 

5. We ascended a staircase, and, passing through a second 
door, entered the library. 


THE VERB 


173 


6. Having taken down the book I examined it closely. 

7. The plan seemed fitted for quiet study. 

8. He chose going alone. 

9. He believed in studying everything carefully. 

10. Riding is good exercise. 

11. His failing is to be regretted. 

12. He stood gazing into the distance. 

13. They did not mention his going. 

14. We saw the boat coming up the river. 

15. They heard the bells ringing. 

16. Let others write of battles fought. 

17. It is impossible to stay the sliding mountain snows. 

18. Learning by heart is a good thing. 

19. The winds go howling through the night. 

20. Budding trees were all about us. 

Exercise B 

292. Change the infinitives in the following sen¬ 
tences to participles, and the participles to infinitives; 
thus: 

They went out skating. 

Changed: They went out to'skate. 

Being an artist is her one desire. 

Changed: To be an artist is her one desire. 

1. I intend calling. 

2. Holding the pen that way is wrong. 

3. Wishing to be successful will not make one so. 

4. They began to run. 

5. To spend a week in the country is worth while. 

6. Success has but one fashion,— losing nothing once gained. 

7. To find fault is easy. 

8. She likes reading. 

9. Writing all day is tiresome. 

10. He understands managing the machine better than I. 

11. Being her friend was not easy. 

12. It was difficult seeing from such a distance. 


174 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


293. Parsing the Verb.—To parse a finite verb it 
necessary to give its,— 

1. Class (transitive or intransitive, regular or irregular). 

2. Principal parts. 

3. Person. 

4. Number. 

5. Tense. 

6 . Mode. 

7. Voice. 

8. Construction. 

To parse a verbal it is necessary to give its,— 

1. Class. 

2. Voice. 

3. Tense. 

4. Construction. 


CHAPTER XIII 


Adverbs and Adverb Equivalents 

294. The Function of the Adverb. —We have seen 
that nouns need adjective modifiers to render their 
meaning more specific. Verbs, likewise, require the 
assistance of other words to limit, define, or describe 
their meaning. Adjectives also require additional 
words sometimes to make their meaning more definite. 
These extra words that are added to verbs and ad¬ 
jectives, likewise, often need the help of other ad¬ 
verbs to limit their application. 

Examples 

1. The train runs smoothly. 

2. It is an exceedingly steep hill. 

3. The decision was reached too quickly. 

295. Adverbs Classified according to Use. —Class¬ 
ified according to their use there are four kinds of ad¬ 
verbs : 

1. Limiting adverbs are adverbs that modify, restrict, or 
define the meaning. They set limits to the amount of the 
action. 

Example: He walks much , daily, or little. 

2. Descriptive Adverbs are adverbs that describe the nature 
of the act, just as a descriptive adjective gives some quality 
of a noun. 

Example: He walks rapidly, slowly , carefully. 

i75 


176 SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 

3. Interrogative Adverbs are adverbs that introduce questions. 
Example: How many men are there? 

4. Conjunctive Adverbs are adverbs that have, in addition 
to their limiting force, the power to connect clauses. 

Example: They stopped off at Antwerp, where they met 
Hester. 

296. Adverbs Classified According to Meaning.— 

For convenience, we may classify adverbs according 
to meaning, and we shall have, six classes: 

1. Adverbs of time: They will be here soon. 

2. Adverbs of place: The books are yonder. 

3. Adverbs of manner: He speaks fluently. 

4. Adverbs of degree : She seems unusually strong. 

5. Adverbs of cause: Consequently I came. 

6. Adverbs of assertion: Yes, perhaps, I can go. 

297. Adverbs Classified According to Form.—If 

we consider adverbs from the standpoint of form, we 
make the three following classes: 

1. Simple adverbs, simple word forms that do not require an 
adverbial suffix. 

Examples 

(a) They are there. 

(b) It is ice cold. 

( c ) We are too near to see well. 

2. Flexional Adverbs, formed by the addition of a suffix to 
some other word. 

Examples 

(a) He struggled manfully. 

(b) William walks fastest. 


ADVERBS AND ADVERB EQUIVALENTS 177 

3. Phrasal Adverbs, idiomatic adverbial phrases used with 
the force of single words. 

Examples 

(a) Go at once. 

( b ) They walked arm in arm. 

( c ) This will not do at all. 

298. The Comparison of Adverbs. —Like adjectives, 
there are many adverbs that vary in degree. In this 
way they can express with greater accuracy the true 
limitation denoted. 

Most adverbs of one or two syllables not ending in 
ly, form their comparative degree by adding er, and 
their superlative by adding est. 

Examples 

soon sooner soonest 

early earlier earliest 

often oftener oftenest 

Most other adverbs of more than one syllable are 
compared by prefixing more, most, less, or least to the 
positive form. 

299. Adjectives and Adverbs. —There are some ad¬ 
verbs that have the same form as adjectives. It is, 
however, not the form of the word, but its use that 
determines what part of speech it is. 

Examples 

Adjective: His voice is loud. 

Adverb: He speaks loud. 

Adjective: The train is slow. 

Adverb: To go slow is sometimes more difficult than to go 
fast. 


178 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


Exercise 

300. Tell which words are adjectives and which 
are adverbs in the following sentences: 

1. The rose smells sweet. 

2. Speak low or you will wake her. 

3. Let the swing remain still. 

4. She plays very well. 

5. Is it well for you to be here? 

6. The enemy stood firm. 

7. She seems amiable. 

8. The river looks beautiful at night. 

9. He returned late. 

10. How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank. 

11. It tastes sour. 

12. She sings little. 

13. He grows large very rapidly. 

14. The sun rises early in June. 

301. Adverb Equivalents.—Just as is the case with 
adjectives, there are several kinds of sentence elements 
that perform the same function as the adverb. They 
are the following: 

(a) A noun expressing extent of space, duration of 
time, or quantity. 

Examples 

1. We lived in London four years. 

2. George walked two miles. 

3. The book cost a dollar. 

( b ) A noun or pronoun used as an indirect object 
of a verb. 

Examples 

1. Give Horace an apple = Give an apple to Horace. 


ADVERBS AND ADVERB EQUIVALENTS 


179 

2. They sent him all sorts of good things = They sent all 
sorts of good things to him. 

(c) An adverbial phrase. 

Examples 

1. They are soiled beyond recognition. 

2. He drove up in a carriage. 

(d) An adverbial clause. 

Examples 

1. They set out as soon as it became light. 

2. They set out, although it was still dark. 

3. We cannot go, if he fails us. 

Exercise 

302. Point out the adverb equivalents in the fol¬ 
lowing sentences, and explain the nature of each: 

1. They traveled many miles. 

2. Give me the book. 

3. They may go in the morning. 

4. His life was like a great picture, full of glowing color. 

5. Burns always carried a book in his pocket to study dur¬ 
ing his spare moments. 

6. They began life on the farm. 

7. He still lives in the hearts and memories of the Scottish 
people. 

8. If you smell many flowers, they overfill your sense with 
fragrance. 

9. As the Knight continued to fix his eyes on the distant 
palm trees, it seemed to him as if some object were moving 
among them. 

10. He had a fever when he was in the south. 

11. She sent James the message. 


8 o 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


12. It weighs ten pounds. 

13. He was as cold as ice. 

14. Though he wished to come, he could not. 

15. He was beyond help years ago. 

16. Margery has been away two years now. 

303. The Uses of the Adverbial Clause.—Adverb¬ 
ial clauses are used to express a greater variety of 
ideas than simple adverbs. They may limit an action 
by telling,— 

1. The time when it happened. 

Example: He started when the sun rose. 

2. The place where it happened. 

Example: Shedarednot go near where the building was burning. 

3. The reason why it happened (cause). 

Example: Since you say so, I believe it. 

4. The manner in which it happened. 

Example: The birds sang as if it were the one day in summer. 

5. The amount of action (degree). 

Example: It is colder than it was last year. 

6. The purpose of the action. 

Example: Judge not, that ye be not judged. 

7. The result of the action. 

Example: It rained so that we could not go. 

8. The condition upon which the taking place of the action 
depends. 

Example: I will go if you wish it. 

9. Something in spite of which the action takes place (con¬ 
cession) . 

Example: Though you do your best, you cannot succeed now. 


ADVERBS AND ADVERB EQUIVALENTS 


181 


Exercise A 

304. Explain the nature of the adverbial clauses in 
the following sentences: 

1. Since my country calls me I obey. 

2. A man is shorter when he is walking than when at rest. 

3. He wished to go where he had once lived. 

4. Though the coast seemed clear, danger lurked every¬ 
where. 

5. When Arthur returned to the Table Round, he found 
the other knights returned. 

6. And if the breeze kept the good news back, 

For other couriers we should not lack. 

7. It is natural now that the heart should be true. 

8. While we were waiting, the train dashed by at full speed. 

9. He left his ring where he could not find it. - 

10. He failed because he had not sufficient determination. 

11. Stay a while that we may decide the matter. 

12. Though they had traveled far, they had not once left 
their own country. 

13. Because he was a brilliant scholar, he gained a great 
reputation among the boys. 

14. The people crowded about him that they might hear him 
more clearly. 

15. If you can go, send me a message. 

16. He acted as if he were injured. 

17. While he was playing, his sister was studying. 

18. The lake was so rough that we could not go out. 

Exercise B 

305. Make clear and thoughtful the following sen¬ 
tences by completing the clauses as indicated. Ex¬ 
plain the nature of each clause: 

1. Washington retreated to Long Island where-. 

2. How do you like it now that-. 


182 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


3. He looked around that-. 

4. He was so kindhearted that-. 

5. While-, a fair wind had arisen. 

And the ship had sailed without him-. 

6. When ——, he found shelter for the night. 

7. He does not know how much he would gain from com¬ 
mitting to memory passages of real excellence, because-. 

8. Though you are young now-. 

9. If-, he would be safe. 

10. They knew the stag at once, because-. 

11. The pines wave their branches to and fro as if-. 

12. Though-, the soldiers tramped steadily on, 

13. It seems as if-. 

14. He went where-. 

15. You must see Abbotsford if-. 

16. The journey took longer than-. 

17. He wrote that-. 

18. The King was more troubled than-. 

306. The Parsing of an Adverb.—To parse an ad¬ 
verb it is necessary to tell,— 

1. Its kind. 

2. The word which it modifies. 

3. Its degree of comparison (if compared). 



CHAPTER XIV 


Prepositions 

307. The Function of the Preposition. —The prep¬ 
osition serves as a link word to connect a noun or its 
equivalent with some other word in the sentence. In 
addition, prepositions indicate the relation between 
the substantive and the word to which the preposition 
links it. The relationship may be one of time, place, 
cause, degree, manner, means, accompaniment, 
agency, possession, origin, and a great many other 
things. 

308. The Object of the Preposition. —The noun, or 
its equivalent, which the preposition joins to some 
other noun, pronoun, adjective, or verb, is called the 
object of the preposition. The object of a preposition 
is in the same case as the object of a verb. 

Examples 

1. Give this coat to Henry. 

2. This will not be difficult for you. 

3. Tell us about what you are going to do. 

4. The sound came from beyond the hill. 

309. Objects of Prepositions.— The preposition 
may have for its object,— 

1. A noun: I hear strains of music. 

2. A pronoun: Give it to me. 

183 


184 SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 

3. An adjective used as a noun: Look on high. 

4. An adverb used as a noun: Save it till later. 

5. A prepositional phrase: He just came from over seas. 

6. An infinitive: None knew her but to love her. 

7. A participle: These pears are good for pickling. 

8. A clause: He is proud of what he accomplished. 

Exercise 

310. Point out the objects of prepositions in the 
following sentences: 

1. He did not think of doing it. 

2. There was little to do but to explain. 

3. The squirrel ran out from inside the tree. 

4. He was hurt by what you said. 

5. He appeared from behind the scenes. 

6. Wait till to-morrow. 

7. She was tired of working. 

8. The house was sold for what it was worth. 

9. To the pure all things are pure. 

10. Not to the strong is the battle. 

11. That will do for to-day. 

12. There was no way out except to climb the wall. 

311. Classes of Prepositions.—Prepositions may be 
classified in accordance with their origin or form as 
(1) simple prepositions, (2) compound prepositions, 
(3) verbal prepositions, and (4) phrasal prepositions. 

1. Simple Prepositions: after, at, in, to, for, through. 

2. Compound Prepositions: aboard, around, between, under¬ 

neath. 

3. Verbal Prepositions: barring, excepting, saving, re¬ 

garding. 

because of, by way of, with re¬ 
gard to, in accordance with. 


4. Phrasal Prepositions: 


PREPOSITIONS 


185 

312. Prepositions in Relative Clauses.—The usual 
place for the preposition is before its object; but, in 
relative clauses, it often may come at the end. This 
is due largely to an old Anglo-Saxon idiom. 

Examples 

j j This is the office which he works in. 

I This is the office in which he works. 

2 \ Which is the man whom you were speaking of? 

i Which is the man of whom you were speaking? 

313. Special Prepositions.—Words not usually 
prepositions sometimes serve as such. 

1. The adjectives near, nearer, nearest, like, more, like and 
most like are often prepositions. 

Example: He is like his father. 

The house nearest the corner is the one. 

2. Than is sometimes a preposition. 

Example: He is a speaker than whom none was more eloquent. 

3. As is often a preposition. 

Examples: The place was used as a garage. 

As a poet Burns had few equals. 

314. The Parsing of the Preposition.—To parse a 
preposition it is necessary to tell: 

1. What kind it is. 

2. What its object is. 

3. What word the prepositional phrase modifies. 

4. Whether the prepositional phrase is an adjective or an 
adverbial phrase. 


:86 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


Exercise 

315. Parse the prepositions in the following sen¬ 
tences : 

1. Upon his first rising the court was hushed, and a general 
whisper ran among the country people that Sir Roger was up. 

2. A diamond ring, like the old thumb ring, seems intended 
chiefly to display the wealth of its owner. 

3. And sure good is: first, in feeding people; then, in dress¬ 
ing people; then, in lodging people; and, lastly, in rightly pleas¬ 
ing people, with arts, or sciences, or any other object of thought. 

4. Like as the waves make towards the pebbled shore, 

So do our minutes hasten to their end. 

5. To feel with them, we must be like them. 

6. A countenance in which did meet 
Sweet records, promises as sweet. 

7. Of all the train none escaped except Wamba. 

8. All men think all men mortal but themselves. 

9. He longed for what he could not have. 

10. Go search it there where to be born and die 
Of rich and poor make all the history. 

11. They knew little regarding the author’s works. 

12. He acted as peace maker. 

13. By such exertions as we have described, Johnson sup¬ 
ported himself till the year 1762. 

14. When I was a boy my comrades wished for nothing ex¬ 
cept to be steam boatmen. 

15. He came out from between the cars. 

16. The house nearest the street is the one. 

17. Over a deep black part of the stream, not far from the 
church, was formerly thrown a wooden bridge; the road that 
led to it, and the bridge itself, were thickly shaded by 
overhanging trees, which cast a gloom about it, even in the 
daytime, but occasioned a fearful darkness at night. 


CHAPTER XV 


Conjunctions 

316. The Function of Conjunctions.—Although the 
number of conjunctions in English is small when com¬ 
pared with some other classes of words, they are an 
extremely important element, because of their use in 
making clear the proper relationships between dif¬ 
ferent sentences or different parts of the same sentence. 
It is the function of conjunctions to connect and to 
show the relationship between words, phrases, clauses, 
and sentences. 

Examples 

1. Words: John and Joseph are brothers. 

2. Phrases : Is he at home or at school? 

3. Clauses: They hurried, but they missed the boat. 

4. Sentences: The soundings were never twice the same. 
However, they were always seven fathoms or more. 

317. The Classes of Conjunctions.—Conjunctions 
may be classified, according to their use, as coordinat¬ 
ing conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions. 

318. Coordinate Conjunctions.—A coordinate con¬ 
junction is one that connects words, phrases, and 
clauses of equal grammatical importance. The clauses 
may both be independent or both dependent, but can¬ 
not be one independent and one dependent. 

187 


188 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


Examples 

1. The cottage and the boat house were burned. 

2. The book is in the book case or on my desk. 

3. It was not an easy task, but he accomplished it. 

4. If it clears up or if it snows, we can go; but if it rains we 
shall have to stay at home. 

319. Uses of Coordinating Conjunctions. —Coordi¬ 
nating conjunctions may denote— 

1. Addition: both, and, also, moreover, besides, further, 

furthermore, etc. 

2. Choice or Separation: either, or, neither, nor, else, other¬ 

wise, or else, or whether, etc. 

3. The Opposite or Contrary: but, still, however, while, where¬ 

as, only, yet, nevertheless, 
notwithstanding, etc. 

4. Result or Consequence: therefore, wherefore, accordingly, 

hence, whence, consequently, 
thus, so, so that, then, so then, 
etc. 

320. Punctuation between Coordinate Clauses.— 

Clauses connected by coordinating conjunctions 
should usually be separated by a comma or a semi¬ 
colon. If the connection in thought is close, and there 
are no other commas used in the clauses, the conjunc¬ 
tions and, but, or, or else, or whether, while, only,'that, 
so, and so that, should be preceded by a comma; 
otherwise they should be preceded by semicolons. 
Most of the other coordinating conjunctions connect¬ 
ing clauses in the same sentence, should be preceded 
by semicolons. 


CONJUNCTIONS 


189 


Exercise A 

321. State the idea denoted by each of the conjunc¬ 
tions in the following sentences, and explain the use 
of punctuation marks separating the clauses: 

1. And this is right; but it is a pity that the accuracy in¬ 
sisted on is not greater. 

2. Our character is our will; for what we will we are. 

3. The locusts have done what the winds and lightning could 
not do, and the whole promise of the vinatge, leaves and all, 
is gone, and the oleander stems are laid bare. 

4. I presently knew what they meant, and I was glad at 
heart to receive this intelligence. 

5. The horse that fell was strained in the left shoulder, but 
the rider got no hurt; and I repaired the harness as well as I 
could: however, I would not trust to the strength of it any more 
in such dangerous enterprises. 

Exercise B 

322. Explain the use of conjunctions, and insert 
proper punctuation marks between clauses in the fol¬ 
lowing sentences: 

1. Reason shows itself in all occurrences of life whereas the 
brute makes no discovery of such a talent. 

2. The hen does not distinguish between her own and those 
of another species and when the birth appears of never so 
different a bird, she will cherish it for her own. 

3. It rained nevertheless they set out. 

4. The mole need dig no more than will serve the mere 
thickness of her body therefore her legs are short. 

5. The court was sat before Sir Roger came, yet they made 
room for the old knight at the head of them. 

6. The trader is fed by the product of the land, and the 


190 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


landed man by the skill of the trader and yet those interests 
are ever jarring. 

7. She did not know where he lived neither could she tell 
me his name. 

8. I was deeply troubled to see such a spirit of dissension 
in the country for it destroys virtue and common sense. 

9. I believe in general that there is and has been such a 
thing as witchcraft moreover I can give you instances from 
my own knowledge. 

10. That debt lay on the house for one generation but it 
was retrieved by a gift from a relative. 

11. Either he is right or we are wrong. 

12. She has been ill hence it is impossible for her to go. 

13. He has now lived with me thirty years and he has never 
once asked anything for himself. 

14. He had earned it nevertheless it was refused him. 

323. Subordinating Conjunctions.— A subordinat¬ 
ing conjunction is one that introduces a dependent 
clause; that is, connects it with some part of another 
clause. It may be connected with some part of an 
independent or of a dependent clause. It may intro¬ 
duce a subject, object, or appositive clause, or an ad¬ 
jective or an adverbial clause. 

Examples 

1. Everyone likes him because he is so manly. 

2. He is to be congratulated because he succeeded, though the 
opposition was enormous. 

3. That he will be elected is believed by even his opponents. 

4. The Governor promised that he would investigate the 
matter. 

324. Uses of Subordinating Conjunctions.—Sub¬ 
ordinating conjunctions may denote— 


CONJUNCTIONS 


igi 

1. Time: When, while, until, as, before, after, ere, till, etc. 

2. Place: Where, wherever. 

3. Manner: As, how, however. 

4. Cause: For, because, since, as, whereas, seeing that, now 

that, etc. 

5. Condition: If, unless, provided, supposing, in case, on 

condition that, etc. 

6. Concession: Though, although, even though, even if. 

7. Purpose: That, in order that, so that, lest. 

8. Result: So that, but that, that (after adverb so). 

9. Introduction: That, whether. 

Exercise 

325. Explain what relationship is denoted by the 
subordinating conjunctions in the following sentences: 

1. A man has no more religion than he acts out in his life. 

2. Man can be great when great occasions call. 

3. Difficulties spin us whenever they do not check us. 

4. After I had pursued the road for several miles, I turned 
off into a footpath. 

5. It was late in the evening when I reached Selkirk. 

6. I had come from Edinburgh that I might visit Melrose 
Abbey. 

7. If I am not mistaken, he was a soldier in early life. 

8. While Scott was thus discoursing, we were passing up a 
narrow glen. 

9. And suppose he were a young man, unlesss he persevered 
he would not succeed. 

10. Think not thy time long in this world, since the world 
itself is not long. 

11. The shoemaker makes a good shoe because he makes 
nothing else. 

12. The attack was made, although no command was given. 

13. The story was so long that it could not be used. 

14. Even if the day were fine, I could not go. 


192 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


15. As soon as they knew it, they determined to regain the 
kingdom. 

326. The Punctuation of Dependent Clauses.—A 

few simple rules will be sufficient to cover the punc- 
uation of dependent clauses. They are as follows: 

1. Closely Related Clauses. —If the dependent clause re¬ 
stricts the meaning of a word very closely it is not separated 
by a mark of punctuation. 

Examples 

1. We read in order that we may learn. 

2. He worked so hard that he broke down. 

3. We started long before the sun was up. 

2. Loosely Related Clauses. —Clauses that are loosely related 
to the main clause, or are separated from the part they modify 
by other modifiers, are preceded by commas. 

Examples 

1. He set out, as it was getting late. 

2. Judge not, that ye be not judged. 

3. Thou hast betrayed thy secret by striving to conceal it, 

as the bird betrays its nest. 

4. (No comma) Thou hast betrayed thy secret as the bird 

betrays its nest by striving to conceal it. 

3. Inverted Clauses. —Dependent limiting clauses, placed at 
the beginning of the sentence, are followed by commas, unless 
they are very short. 

Examples 

1. When we had finished our work, we set out on a long 

tramp through the fields. 

2. Since the Rambler had ceased to appear, the town had 

been entertained by a journal called The World. 

3. If it comes to that alternative, the financial question 

will have to give way. 


CONJUNCTIONS 


*93 


Exercise 

327. Explain the use of each of the subordinating 
conjunctions, and insert commas where needed, in the 
following sentences: 

1. Since it was so cloudy we decided it would be better to 
go by train. 

2. Although Robin had had one drubbing that day he 
entered into the controversy with zest. 

3. After the fog cleared away we got a splendid view of 
the valley. 

4. Whereas it seems advisable for us to express our feelings 
in this matter I make the following motion. 

5. However it turns out little or no harm can come to any 
of us if we take proper precautions. 

6. Supposing you fail to find him what will you do then? 

7. In order that they might be provided against delay they 
took provisions for four days. 

8. The night was cloudy and there was no moon so progress 
was very slow as we were entirely unfamiliar with the way. 

9. Seeing that you succeeded so well this time we are 
willing to give you a better trial. 

10. Until he proved his ability to bear responsibility he was 
kept in an unimportant position. 

11. Let him that thinketh he standeth take heed lest he fall. 

12. Unless you bring a note stating the cause of your tardi¬ 
ness you must remain after school. 

13. Even though I knew that he could do it I should hesitate 
to trust him as he is so unreliable. 

14. That he would attain his end everyone believed. 

15. Now that Harry has come I suppose you will be able to 
take your vacation. 


CHAPTER XVI 


Punctuation 

Period, Question Mark, and Exclamation Point. 

328. Period.—A period should be placed after the 
following: 

1. Declarative sentences. 

Example: The violet is one of the spring flowers. 

2. Abbreviations. 

Example: The train Dr. Brown will come on arrives at 
5 p.m. 

3. Numerals, or letters used as numerals, introducing topics, 
sentences, paragraphs, etc. 

For examples, see numerals at the beginnings of paragraphs 
in this book. 

329. Question Mark.—An interrogation point ' 
should be used after, — 

1. Every interrogative sentence, except strongly exclama¬ 
tory questions. 

Example: When are you going? 

Exception: When can their glory fade! 

2. A direct question within a sentence. 

Example: He said, “Why were you late?” 

194 


PUNCTUATION 


195 


3. Each member of a series of short direct questions. 

Example: What is the capital of Ohio? of Vermont? of 
Oregon? 

Exercise A 

330. Give reasons for the use of periods, question 
marks, and exclamation points in the following sen¬ 
tences : 

1. There are several reasons why the P. Q. Dept, is not self- 
supporting. 

2. The question now arises, What was his motive? 

3. Hark! Did ye not hear it? 

4. Do you know the Rev. Dr. James Lindsey? 

5. 1427 Grand Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y. 

6. What a piece of work is man! 

7. Where be your gibes now? your gambols? your songs? 
your flashes of merriment that were wont to set the table on 
roar? 

8. Soldier, rest, thy warfare o’er; 

Sleep the sleep that knows not breaking! 

9. Send me on Aug. 4th 3 bu. of potatoes. 

10. He was given the degree of Ph. D. by Columbia Univ. 

Exercise B 

331. Place periods, question marks, and exclama¬ 
tion points where they are needed in the following sen¬ 
tences: 

1. Oh how sorry I am 

2. The question is, are you willing to do it 

3. What is the population of Greater New York of Chicago 
of Philadelphia 

4. I have sent my MS to Dr J W Thomas 

5. O mighty Caesar dost thou lie so low 

6. The accident occurred at 6 P M Oct 3rd 


196 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


7. Oh for one hour of youthful joy 

8. Send me 1 doz pencils, and Y2 doz note bks Sept 1st 

9. Ah truest soul of woman kind 

Without thee what were life 

10. You will find the reference in Chap. VI p 95 

The Comma 

332. Introductory and Connective Expressions.— 

Adverbs and adverbial phrases that have introductory 
or connective force should be cut off from the rest of 
the sentence by commas. 

Examples 

1. Now, if that is the case, I will not go. 

2. His taste in music, also, was excellent. 

333. Intermediate Expressions.—Expressions which 
make a break between important parts of the sentence, 
should be cut off by commas. 

Examples 

1. “I had no idea,” he said “that the distance was so great.” 

2. This rule, I believe, is the most important of all. 

334. Expressions in Apposition.—All words, 
phrases, and clauses in apposition with nouns or pro¬ 
nouns should be cut off from the rest of the sentence 
by commas. 

Examples 

1. J. E. Brown, the president of the Club, introduced the 
speaker. 

2. I, John, saw these things. 


PUNCTUATION 


• 197 


335. Independent Nouns. —Nouns independent by 
address should be cut off from the rest of the sentence 
by commas. 

Examples 

1. Comrades, leave me here a little. 

2. Turn, gentle hermit of the dale, 

And guide my lonely way. 

336. Pairs of Words. —Each pair of words or 
phrases in a series should be followed by a comma. 

Examples 

1. High and low, rich and poor, united to do him honor. 

2. Up and down, in and out, round and about, through 
fields and woods, the dogs followed the fox. 

337. Contrasted Words. —Contrasted words or 
phrases should be separated by commas. 

Examples 

1. It is a day of victory, not defeat. 

2. Look up, not down. 

338. Words in a Series. —Words or phrases in a 
series not connected by conjunctions are separated by 
commas. When the final words of the series are con¬ 
nected by a conjunction, the comma usually precedes 
the conjunction. 


Examples 

1. Then I, and you, and all of us fell down. 

2. Bring me books, slates, and pencils. 


198 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


Exercise A 

339. Give the reasons for the punctuation used in 
the following sentences: 

1. Come, all ye jolly shepherds. 

2. For Brutus, as you know, was Caesar’s angel. 

3. Good friends, sweet friends, let me not stir you up. 

4. Now, sir, what can I do for you? 

5. This new plan, it seems to me, can not fail to be success¬ 
ful. 

6. The next step, therefore, is to collect the necessary 
material. 

7. Victoria, queen of England, died in 1901. 

8. Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I give my 
hand and my heart to this vote. 

9. Trust for success to work, not to luck. 

10. Look forward, not back. 

11. It was a beautiful, warm, sunshiny day in early spring. 

12. Consequently, I have nothing more to say. 

Exercise B 

340. Punctuate the following sentences and give 
reasons: 

1. “Nay now my child” said Alice the nurse. 

“But keep the secret all ye can” 

2. Break break break 

On thy cold gray stones O sea 

3. Then sing ye birds sing sing a joyous song 

4. Come now Mary do not be vexed at such a trifle 

5. This you understand is the last time I shall speak of it 

6. Sweet and low sweet and low 

Wind of the western sea 
Low low breathe and blow 
Wind of the western sea. 


PUNCTUATION 199 

7. The whole neighborhood abounded with local tales 
haunted spots and twilight superstitions. 

8. Through sunshine and shadow through life and death 
together for sixty years they had walked 

9. A perfect woman nobly planned 
To warn to comfort and command 

10. For the love of heaven of generosity of justice of the 
honor of your noble name hesitate no longer 

341. Dependent and Conditional Clauses. —De¬ 
pendent and conditional clauses, commonly intro¬ 
duced by such words as when, while, if, although, un¬ 
less, and whereas, should be cut off from the rest of the 
sentence, by commas, unless the connection is close. 

Examples 

1. If you can do the work, we shall be very glad. 

2. I will be there when you come (close connection; a re¬ 
strictive clause). 

342. Additional Relative Clauses. —Relative clauses 
which supply additional information, but which do 
not restrict the meaning of the antecedent, should be 
cut off from the rest of the sentence by commas. 

Examples 

1. The lake, which is three miles long, is surrounded by 
mountains. 

2. Bring me the book which lies on the table (no commas: 
restrictive clause). 

343. Closely Connected Clauses. —Closely con¬ 
nected coordinate clauses are separated by commas. 


200 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


Examples 

1. I do not know now, but I will let you know to-morrow. 

2. I came, I saw, I conquered. 

344. Short Quotations.—Short quotations and ex¬ 
pressions resembling quotations are preceded by 
commas. 

Examples 

1. We at last persuaded him to say, “I will go.” 

2. The next question is, What shall we do about it? 

345. Participial Phrases.—All loosely connected 
participial phrases should be cut off from the rest of 
the sentence by commas. 

Examples 

1. The man, springing into the saddle, rode furiously away. 

2. He gave a very interesting account of his travels, illus¬ 
trating his lecture by many views, which he had taken himself. 

346. Inverted Expressions.—Phrases and clauses 
placed at the beginning of the sentence by inversion 
are followed by commas, unless closely connected 
with the word they modify. 

Examples 

1. Ever since his defeat, he has seemed like a different man. 

2. When we came to the river, we found it very much over 
its banks. 

347. Long Phrase or Clause Subjects.—A subject 
with several modifiers, or with a long clause modifier 
is followed by a comma. 


PUNCTUATION 


201 


Examples 

1. To hold fast to the right as he sees it, is every man’s duty. 

2. That he was unable to meet the obligations which he had 
incurred, caused him the greatest distress. 

348. Omission of Words. —The comma is used to 
mark the omission of a word logically necessary to the 
sentence. 

Examples 

1. We expect to start to-day; the Browns, to-morrow. 

2. Carthage has crossed the Alps; Rome, the seas. 

Exercise A 

349. Give the reasons for the punctuation of the 
following sentences: 

1. If you did, I care not. 

2. You wrong me every way, you wrong me, Brutus. 

3. I said an elder soldier, not a better. 

4. If this were true, then should I know this secret. 

5. Break, break, break, 

At the foot of thy crags, 0 sea! 

6. My soul to-day 
Is far away, 

Sailing the Vesuvian Bay. 

7. Being now resolved to be a poet, I saw everything with 
a new purpose. 

8. The plants of the garden, the animals of the wood, the 
minerals of the earth, the meteors of the sky, must all concur 
to store his mind with inexhaustible variety. 

9. We spent the day in the woods gathering nuts, which 
the frost had sent to the ground in great profusion. 

10. I should not, if I were young again, so neglect my op¬ 
portunities for education. 


202 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


11. The breeze, springing up suddenly, was very refreshing 
after the sultry heat of the day. 

12. The dew was falling fast, the stars began to blink. 

13. Haply some hoary-headed swain may say, 

“Oft have we seen him at the peep of dawn.” 

14. When a deed is done for freedom, through the broad 

earth’s aching breast 

Runs a thrill of joy prophetic, trembling on from east 
to west. 

15. “All quiet along the Potomac,” they say, 

“Except, now and then, a stray picket 
Is shot, as he walks on his beat to and fro, 

By a rifleman hid in the thicket.” 

16. For many a petty king ere Arthur came to cleanse the 
realm of the heathen horde, ruled in the land. 

17. This is the man who called yesterday. 

18. Sometimes a distant sail, gliding along the edge of the 
ocean, would be another theme for speculation. 

Exercise B 

350. Punctuate the following sentences, and give 
reasons for the marks you use: 

1. His own friends who surely knew of his condition made 
no attempt to relieve his distress. 

2. The petty kings ever waging war on each other wasted 
the land. 

3. There is no flock however watched and tended 

but one dead lamb is there. 

4. Ring out the want the care the sin 

The faithless coldness of the times. 

5. And Gawain departed breaking into song. 

6. To what country the man belonged and by what means 
he had come hither with his queer companions could not be 
ascertained. 


PUNCTUATION 


203 

7. Speak little and speak well briefly and to the point if 
you wish to be considered wise. 

8. Although he thought he knew everybody in the village 
he could not find one friendly face. 

9. As Caesar loved me I weep for him. 

10. To take the field openly against his rival and make 
frequent visits to the farmhouse seemed to him madness. 

11. He expected to be home the last of the week but finds 
that he must stay a few days longer. 

12. He dashed down the street crying Fire Fire 

13. The wind blowing strongly from the east brought on a 
cold drizzling rain. 

14. Seek the good in your friends not their faults 

15. I hurried her on deck over the bulwark down the gang¬ 
plank and into the coach. 

Semicolon and Colon 

351. Coordinate Clauses. —The semicolon is used 
to separate coordinate clauses, unless they are very 
short and very closely connected. 

Examples 

1. New occasions teach new duties; Time makes ancient 

good uncouth; 

They must upward still, and onward, who would keep 
abreast of Truth. 

2. He and his companions labored on in silence; for there was 
something in the latter that checked curiosity. 

3. We whistled after him and shouted his name; but the 
echoes only repeated the echo and the shout. 

352. Explanatory Clauses with a Conjunction.— A 

clause that is added to a complete sentence by way of 
explanation, should be preceded by a semicolon, if the 
clause is introduced by a conjunction. 




204 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


Examples 

1. He and his companions labored on in silence; for there 
was something in the latter that checked curiosity. 

2. I always feel so well in the mountains; for the air is so 
invigorating. 

353. Explanatory Clauses without a Conjunction.— 

A clause that is added to a complete sentence by way 
of explanation, is preceded by a colon, if the clause is 
not introduced by a conjunction. 

, Examples 

1. I like this place very much: the scenery is so beautiful. 

2. He has gone back to the city: his work begins on next 
Monday. 

354. Particulars in Apposition.—The colon should 
precede particulars which are in apposition with a 
general term. 

Examples 

1. The age of Elizabeth produced two great poets: Shakes¬ 
peare, the greatest of dramatists, and Spencer, the author of 
the Faerie Queene. 

2. Three properties belong to wisdom: nature, learning, and 
experience. 

355. Formal Quotations.—Quotations and other ex¬ 
pressions formally introduced are preceded by a colon. 

Examples 

1. The play opens with the sentence: “In sooth, I know not 
why I am so sad.” 

2. The proposition to be proved is: That Mars is inhabited. 


PUNCTUATION 


205 


Exercise A 

356. Explain the punctuation used in the following 
sentences: 

1. My name is Lynette; my need, a knight to battle for 
my sister, Lyonors. 

2. For of all sad words of tongue or pen, 

The saddest are these: “It might have been!” 

3. I wandered by the brookside, 

I wander’d by the mill; 

I could not hear the brook flow, 

The noisy wheel was still: 

There was no burr of grasshopper, 

No chirp of any bird; 

But the beating of my own heart 
Was all the sound I heard. 

4. Thus, Brutus, did my master bid me kneel; 

Thus did Mark Antony bid me fall down; 

And, being prostrate, thus he bade me say: 

Brutus is noble, wise, valiant, and honest. 

5. I would have gone; God bade me stay: 

I would have worked; God bade me rest. 

6. On some fond breast the parting soul relies, 

Some pious drops the closing eye requires; 

E’en from the tomb the voice of nature cries, 

E’en in our ashes live their wonted fires. 

7. Not wholly lost, O Father! is this evil world of ours; 
Upward, through its blood and ashes, spring afresh the 

Eden flowers. 

8. My heart leaps up when I behold 

A rainbow in the sky: 

So was it when my life began; 

So is it now I am a man; 

So be it when I shall grow old, 

Or let me die! 


206 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


9. Three poets, in three distant ages born, 

Greece, Italy, and England did adorn, 

The first in loftiness of thought surpassed; 

The next in majesty; in both the last. 

10. The force of JNature could no further go; 

To make a third, she joined the former two. 

Exercise B 

355. Punctuate the following sentences, and give 
reasons for the marks you use: 

1. Mary could not go to school on Monday the weather 
was too bad. 

2. My sled is broken consequently I cannot go coasting with 
you. 

3. Send me the following five lbs of sugar one doz eggs 
and one qt of milk. 

4. I refused to go with him for the danger was too great. 

5. Sentences are of three kinds simple compound and com¬ 
plex. 

6. Be sure to reject his offer it is the only wise plan. 

7. I like this story very much it contains so much genuine 
human nature. 

8. We’ll take the dogs with us to-day for we may start some 
rabbits. 

9. Sometimes they seemed to approach at others to recede 
at others still to melt into a sultry haze. 

10. Little do ye know your own blessedness; for to travel 
hopefully is a better thing than to arrive, and the true success 
is to labor. 

356. The Dash.—The dash is used to indicate a 
sudden change in construction. 

Examples 

1. You are going—are you not? 

2. I weep for Adonais—he is dead! 


PUNCTUATION 


207 


357- Quotation Marks.—All direct quotations, 
short or long, should be included in quotation marks. 

Examples 

1. “Make way for liberty!” he cried. 

2. He shouted but once more aloud, 

“My father, must I stay?” 

Capitals 

358. The First Word.—Capitals are used for the 
initial letter of a sentence, of a line of poetry, of a di¬ 
rect question or quotation. 

359. Names of Diety.—All names and titles of the 
Deity and personal pronouns referring to Him begin 
with capitals. 

360. Proper Names.—All proper nouns and proper 
adjectives, including names of days, months, streets, 
rivers, nations, races, sects, political parties, and parts 
of the country begin with capitals. 

Note. —The words street, river, mountain, etc., begin with 
capitals when used in connection with their names. The 
names of seasons are not written with capitals. 

361. Official Titles.—Official titles and titles of 
honor or office begin with capitals. 

362. Titles of Books.—In the titles of books, essays, 
works of art, etc., the first word and every other prom¬ 
inent word, including nouns, adjectives, verbs, and 
sometimes pronouns and adverbs, begin with capitals. 

363. Important Events.—The names of important 
events, epochs, and bodies of men, begin with cap¬ 
itals. 


208 


SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT 


364. In Personification.—Names of personified ob¬ 
jects begin with capitals. 

365. The Pronoun I.—The pronoun I, the inter¬ 
jection 0 , the words Bible, Scripture, and the names 
of the books and parts of the Bible are written with 
capitals. 

Exercise 

366. Give reasons for the use of capitals in the fol¬ 
lowing sentences: 

1. St. Patrick’s day is the 17th of March. 

2. The Amazon River is the longest in South America. 

3. He was made a prisoner during the Spanish War. 

4. The title of the book is, “The Conquest of Mexico.” 

5. We have just taken up the study of Tennyson. 

6. The question is, What can we do about it? 

7. The Swiss are a liberty-loving people. 

8. He lives on North Main Street. 

9. She is very much interested in the study of French. 

10. Our father’s God, to Thee, 

Author of liberty, 

To Thee we sing. 

11. Then to side with Truth is noble when we share her 
wretched crust. 

12. You know we French stormed Ratisbon. 

13. His family have always been Presbyterians. 

14. O Mother! Did you say I could go to the picnic? 

15. Now glory to the Lord of Hosts, from whom all glories 

are! 

And glory to our Sovereign Liege, King Henry of 
Navarre! 






































































































































































































































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